FM 21-22 Watermanship 1944

WAR DEPARTMENT BASIC FIELD MANUAL

WATERMANSHIP

WAR DEPARTMENT • 25 APRIL 1944

CHANNON, R. C

WAR DEPARTMENT BASIC FIELD MANUAL
FM 21-22

WATERMANSHIP

25 APRIL 1944

United States Government Printing Office

Washington: 1944
For Sale by Superintendent of Documents

WAR DEPARTMENT,

Washington 25, D. C, 25 April 1944.

FM 21-22, Watermanship, is published for the infor-
mation and guidance of all concerned.

[A.G. 300.7 (IS Mar 44).]

By order of the Secretary of War:

G. C. MARSHALL,

Chief of Staff.

Official:

J. A. ULIO,

Major General,

The Adjutant General.

Distribution:

As prescribed in paragraph 9a, FM 21-6: Bn and H 1,
3, 5, 8-15, 19, 28, 35, 55(5); C 1, 3, 5, 8-15, 19, 28, 35,
55 (20); AAF Sch (200); ASF Sch (200); AAF Unit Tug
Cen (500); ASF Unit Tug Cen (500); AAF RTC (500);
ASF RTC (500).

For explanation of symbols see FM 21-6.

CONTENTS

Paragraphs P"<f c

Section I. General 1-3 1

II. Swimming 4-13 3

Safety equipment ......... 14-25 18

IV. Abandoning ship 26-42 52

V. Operation of lifeboats,

rafts, and floats 43-45 . 80

VI. Living aboard life craft. . . 46-59 86

P/L First aid at sea 60-77 103

VIII. Protection against water

animals 78-93 1 12

IX. Safety measures and emer-

gency procedure in land-
ing craft ' 94-99 123

X. Safety measures and emer-

gency procedure in river

crossings 100-104 140

lndrx 144

SECTION I
GENERAL

1. GENERAL Military watermanship means taking care
of ^yourself on or in the water in any military situation.
It combines ordinary swimming ability and knowledge
of the sea with common sense and self-discipline.

You may have to travel over water on various types of
craft. All sorts of conditions arise where a knowledge
of what to do and how to do it may mean the difference
between life and death.

Panic due to ignorance is often the main cause of
loss of life at sea. Those who know what to do and
keep a cool head have little trouble in keeping afloat
until picked up.

2. PURPOSE. The purpose of this manual is three-fold:

a. To give you those basic principles of watermanship
that will enable you to meet with confidence any emer-
gency that may arise.

b. To teach you certain fundamental practices used
during small landing-craft operations.

c. To show you how to swim small lakes or rivers
under combat conditions.

d. This manual does not describe waterproofing of
individual equipment and weapons. Such information
is covered in existing manuals and publications of the
technical services supplying the equipment. The infor
mation included is intended to suggest ways and means
rather than to prescribe definite rules. Methods must be
modified according to the actual situation.

1

3. INSTRUCTION. Training in military watermanship
will, to a large degree, consist of actual practice under
various conditions. Its objective is to equip you with
the knowledge and confidence to take proper steps for
your own safety.

SECTION II
SWIMMING

4. GENERAL. Military swimming means swimming in
full clothing and equipment to reach your objective in
fit condition for action. If shipwrecked far from shore
the soldier does not try to swim to shore but tries to
keep afloat until he is rescued. Consequently, military
swimming includes the basic water skills which conserve
energy and which best insure buoyancy for long periods.
The soldier must know how to jump from a sinking ship
and how to swim under water to escape observation, or
strafing, or to avoid surface oil or flame. Basic military
swimming therefore includes the following items:

a. Submerging and floating.

b. Dog paddle and breast stroke.

c. Treading water.

d. Side stroke.

e. Elementary back stroke.

f. Jumping.

g. Underwater swimming.

For swimming instruction see chapter 5, FM 21-20. Dur-
ing practice if the man finds he can do the scissors kick
more naturally and effectively than the frog kick, or vice
versa, no attempt should be made to change his style.

5. SUBMERGING AND FLOATING, a. Submerging.

Initially, the man must be taught to submerge in shallow
water and keep his eyes open. He must learn by expe-
rience that it is difficult to stay under water because

3

[1] To submerge, raise arms sideward and upward abruptly; stay
under as long as possible.

[2] To rise again, lower arms sideward and downward abruptly,
figure J. Bobbing conceals and protects swimmer from enemy fire.
A

the buoyancy of air trapped in his chest forces him to
the surface. By expelling part of the air he can sub-
merge without effort. He learns how to expel air
through his nose under water, and above water to gulp
air through his mouth. He gains confidence. In deeper
water lie is taught how to bob up and down. Bobbing
is performed by raising the arms abruptly, sideward and
upward, when he Avants to go down (fig. 1 [1]); and
lowering the arms abruptly, sideward and downward,
when he wants to go' up (fig. 1 [2]).

b. Floating. Floating is the best way to conserve energy.
Anyone can float, either motionless or with a slight
movement of the arms or legs. To increase body buoy-
ancy the chest is expanded as much as possible. After
taking a deep breath further expansion can be accom-
plished without sucking in air merely by pulling up the
stomach with the stomach muscles. Floating, combined
with particular arm and leg movements to give propul-
sion, is swimming.

(1) Back float (fig. 2 [1]). This, the best relaxing
float, can be accomplished with legs together or apart
and arms extended to the side or overhead. With legs
together and arms by the side there is a tendency for the
legs to sink and drag the body under.

(2) Jelly-fish float (fig. 2 [2]). The body is doubled
up by bending the legs, pulling the knees to the chest,
and dropping the head on the chest. Arms clasp knees.
In this position the body will roll forward until only the
back is visible above water. The jelly-fish float is used
mainly when removing clothing.

(3) Prone float (fig. 2 [3]). This is the basic position
for all prone swimming strokes. It is performed by lying
face down on the water, arms and legs extended. It is
used with the face submerged, eyes open, to see under
the water, or with the head high, to observe above it.

6. PRONE STROKES, a. Dog paddle (fig. 3). This is
done from the prone-float position by using the arms
and legs in exactly the same manner as when climbing

s

[ I ] t/se back float to relax. Modify back float to avoid blast injury
in luater by crossing legs, tensing body, tightening anus; float on
very top of surface.

[2] Use jelly-fish float to remove clothing.

fc.. „ ' . _ _ - . A

[3] Prone float is basic position for all prone swimming; submerge
face and open eyes to see under water or raise head high to observe
over it; arms and legs are extended.

Figure 2. Conserve strength by floating.

6

a ladder. The hands, slightly cupped, fingers joined,
thumb along the forefinger, reach forward and pull on
the water. They reach as far forward as possible with-
out exertion and pull back on the water. The legs push
back on the water by being doubled up and extended
to the rear. Left leg and left arm, right leg and right
arm, work together. Since legs and arms do not break
surface, this is a useful stroke for silent swimming.

r

Figure 3. Dog paddle is elementary swimming stroke; used for silent
swimming. Hands reach forward and pull back; legs push away on
the water; left leg and arm and right leg and arm work together.

b. Breast stroke (fig. 4). The breast stroke, like the
dog paddle, is an extremely easy and relaxed stroke.
It can be used in all types of water, calm or choppy,
and should be done with the head held high for better
observation. It is also used for underwater swimming.
This is a good stroke to use when carrying equipment
on the back. By splashing with hands and arms on the
forward movement, the breast stroke may be used to

7

push away debris and thin surface oil and flame. For
this and other strokes not covered in detail, see FM
21^20.

Figure 4. Breast stroke is dependable in all situations, in all types
of water. Head may be raised or submerged, a. Start with prone
float, b. Pull arms to sides horizontally. When arms reach shoulder
level, start to draw in legs. Arms and hands meet under chest; legs
assume deep knee bend with knees separated, c. Arms lunge for-
ward under water and terminate as at a; legs are lashed out to side
straddle hop then return to starting position.

8

7. TREADING WATER (fig. 5). Treading water con-
sists of standing upright in the water with the feet going
'through the motions of climbing a ladder. It should be

! . •„. ... . ""1

Figure 5. Observe while swimming by treading water. Stand up-
right and move feet as in climbing a ladder; hands push down on
the water.

9

sufficient to keep the head high out of water. If de-
sired, the hands may be employed to push down on the

sua*.

[1J Lie on side, one hand lower than other; execute deep knee bene,
with legs, knees together.

[2] Thrust legs backward and apart, then close them fully ex-
tended. At same time thrust lower arm forward and upward and
upper hand downward and backward across body.

i

[3] Pull lower arm back in under chest and carry upper arm for-
ward until position [1] is reached. Legs return to deep knee bend.

Figure 6. Side stroke most useful for carrying or towing; swim on
either side.

10

water. Treading water is extremely useful when stop-
ping to observe.

8. SIDE STROKE (fig. 6). The side stroke may be per-
formed on either side and hence is especially useful if
either arm is disabled. This stroke can be used to
carry equipment above water or to tow an object or
another man. If an item of equipment is too heavy for
one man to carry, two men, using the side stroke, can
carry the object with their free arms (fig. 7).

Figure 7. Use one-arm side stroke to carry machine gun. This
method can be used- by strong swimmers for short distances.

9. ELEMENTARY BACK STROKE. The elementary back
stroke is a relaxed stroke derived from the back float.
The legs do the inverted frog kick or scissors kick.
Arms are raised shoulder high, elbows straight, and
then carried to the side, pushing the water towards the
feet. When the arms are disabled or when it is neces-
sary to carry equipment above water (fig. 8), arm mo-
tions can be omitted.

10. JUMPING. For military swimming, jumping into
the water is better and safer than diving. It is safer
than to chance hurting the head and face by diving into
water of unknown depth or into debris. While jump-
ing, it is easier to observe the surface, for instance, to

11

Figure 8. Use back stroke to carry equipment. It rests swimmer;
restores normal breathing. Inverted frog or scissors kick suffices to
make progress; pushing motion of arm from shoulder level toward
legs aids progress. All. movements occur under water. Strong swim-
mers can negotiate short distances ivith equipment in this manner.
, Waterproofing of gas mask is described in TM 3-205.

locate lifeboats on the water. Remove the helmet before
jumping. In jumping, the left hand pinches the nostrils
together and the right hand clutches the left shoulder
or vice versa. The arm across the chest protects the
face from impact with the water. The head is held
erect. The body is relaxed and straight and the legs
are together. (See fig. 9.) In training, jumping should
start from about 3 feet and gradually be increased to
25 feet (the average height of a vessel's deck from the
water). * When the soldier has mastered jumping, he
should practice it from various heights while clothed.

11. UNDERWATER SWIMMING. In underwater swim-
ming, either the dog paddle or breast stroke is used,
the latter being better. The head is held high to see
ahead or to see the surface of the water. Underwater
swimming is used to escape oil, surface flame, or debris.
(See par. 41.)

12

12. ADVANCED SWIMMERS, a. Men who have mas-
tered basic military swimming while clothed should learn
the fundamentals of diving, especially surface and shal-

Figure 9. Position of body while jumping: left hand pinches nos-
trils; riglit hand clutches left shoulder or vice versa. Body is re-
laxed, straight, feet together.

13

low diving. Surface diving is helpful when retrieving
articles which have sunk in water no deeper than 10 feet.
It is executed by ducking the head, rolling forward and
downward, pulling backward with the arms and hands,
and kicking with the legs. When using it to go under
surface oil or flames, legs should be bent and the knees
kept close to the chest. If the legs are extended before
being completely submerged, they may be burned or
covered with oil. The shallow dive can be executed
from a running start. It consists of diving forward when
slightly above the surface of the water, and arching the
body by raising the head and chest and flinging the
arms upward so that when the body hits the water it
skims along the surface instead of going under. (See
fig. 10.) The shallow dive is useful in shallow water or
water of unknown depth or when it is necessary to cross
a body of water quickly, as when escaping from an
enemy shore. From the shallow dive it is easy to go
into any strong swimming stroke.

b. Learn the life-saving methods described in chapter
5, FM 21-20, and the various breaks, supports, and
carries. Artificial respiration is covered in paragraph 62.

Figure JO. Use shallow dive in shallow water of unfamiliar deep
ivaler. Shove off strongly with feet; arch body by raising head and
chest and throw arms upward, body skims over surface when it hits

water.

14

13. SWIMMING TO SHORE, a. Surf. In case of ship-
wreck near shore or of the necessity of swimming to
shore from a landing craft sunk or beached on a sand
bar offshore, every soldier should know how to protect
himself against surf, current, undertow, and tide rip.
When approaching a shore, he should take up the breast
stroke or dog paddle and survey the conditions of the
beach (rock, sand), power of the surf, undertow, tide
rip, and existing currents.

(1) Surf is the breaking of the waves on a beach.
Undertow is the strong current beneath the surface that
sets seaward after the wave has passed over. Tide rip is
a condition set up when an outgoing tide opposes and
slips under an incoming tide. The line of opposition
is usually identified by a line of frothing water. Under-
tow is only within the first line of breakers; a strong
push on the bottom with feet will push the swimmer to
the surface immediately after being rolled, putting him
in position to collect himself again and try for another
landing. There is no cause for fear.

(2) Difficulty also sometimes results from encounter-
ing a body of water left between the beach and a sand
bar by an outgoing tide. The trapped water may cut a
path through the sand bar and create a strong outgoing
current through the path and for some distance beyond
the sand bar, with comparatively still water on either
side. After surveying the beach the swimmer should
swim opposite the point selected for landing; or if a
current exists, to such a point that by going diagonally
across the current the landing spot will be reached. He
should remove the life preserver and all other means of
support and discard them if possible. The weak swim-
mer may hang on to them but always should be ready
to let go.

(3) Before swimming to shore one should remember
the action of any sea animal in swimming through surf.
The seal, for instance, disappears outside the line surf
and reappears on the shore. It takes advantage of the
calm water beneath the breaking waters of the surf.
The soldier making a landing should follow its example;

IS

16

he should duck under breaking waves. He should use
die breast stroke, side stroke, or dog paddle, looking
behind to see the waves and looking ahead to check the
direction. He should bob under the breaking waves,
then come up and swim toward short continuously look-
ing behind for the next approaching wave. (See fig. 11.)
He should not fight undertow and should remember
that it exists only for a short distance out below the
surface. He must avoid panic and conserve energy.
The wave will advance the swimmer more than the
undertow will carry him back. He should swim easily
until the next breaker comes along and then come in
on the forward swell following the breaker. If he can
stand on the bottom easily, he should watch the waves
more carefully. They vary in size. He should go under
the large ones and walk toward shore with the small
ones, bracing his feet against returning undertow. He
must always be patient even though making only a few
feet at a time.

b. Rocky shore. In landing on a rocky shore, the
swimmer must not allow himself to be hit by a breaking
wave. The danger is that a wave will throw him upon
the rocks. He must bob under the wave before it breaks
and cling to the bottom if possible. The bottom is
usually calm.

c. Currents. He should not swim against the pull of
a current; it will exhaust him. Instead he should swim
diagonally across its pull without panic and with a
strong stroke. Before long the effect will be avoided.
Then he should continue swimming toward shore at
some other point.

d. Weak swimmer. The weak swimmer must remain
outside a breaking surf with his life preserver until help
arrives. If no aid is available, he must swim along the
shore outside the surf and with the current, looking for
an inlet to a river or bay, a long jetty, or a point where
the surf breaks only when close to shore.

17

SECTION HI
SAFETY EQUIPMENT

14. GENERAL, a. Safety equipment aboard a troop
transport includes life preservers, lifeboats, life rafts, life
floats, life nets, ladders, ropes, and lifebuoys. Additional
equipment will be found in lifeboats and life rafts.
Unit commanders will take immediate steps to have the
use of safety equipment explained to all soldiers and to
conduct such drills and training as may be prescribed
for the particular vessel. Instruction will be given in
use of lifeboats, life rafts, life preservers, and the rules
to be followed in abandoning ship. Every man boarding
a vessel is given a life preserver, a life-preserver light, a
whistle, and a pamphlet of safety rules. (See fig. 12.)
Equipment not self-explanatory will have printed in-
structions. A single-blade jackknife may also be issued.

b. Each man should check his own equipment, pro-
vide himself with to ^-inch line of convenient
length, and improvise a canvas or paulin container for
personal essentials needed in an emergency. If canvas
is unobtainable, use sacking or old clothes. A line is
indispensable aboard ship or in the water; in spare time,
use it to practice tying knots and lashings.

15. LIFE JACKETS, a. Description. The life jacket has
cotton tape straps 12 inches long, so placed as to allow
the jacket to be reversed. Each jacket will support at
least 20 pounds downward pull of gravity for 24 hours.
The buoyant material may be cork or balsa blocks,

18

Figure 12. Individual safety equipment aboard transport: kapok
life jacket, safety rules, whistle, and life-preserver light (red, flash-
light).

granulated cork, or kapok. Kapok jackets are most
widely used because they are more comfortable, warmer,
and safer to use. The hard cork or balsa jacket when
jumping is forced up against the jaw by impact with
water.

b. Uses and exceptions. (1) Kapok life jackets are
worn—

(a) At all times when vessel is outside inland waters.

(b) When jumping from transports of moderate free-
board (distance from waterline to deck) and tugs and
harbor craft.

19

(c) When floating or swimming.

(d) When aboard lifeboat, float, or raft.

(2) Balsa and cork jackets are worn—

(a) At all times when vessel is outside inland waters.

(b) When floating or swimming.

(c) When aboard lifeboat, float, or raft.

(d) When jumping from vessels of not more than 10-
foot freeboard. Hug jacket tightly until under surface.

(3) Life jackets are not worn—

(a) When jumping from great heights. Tie jacket to
your person in such cases; it will follow you into water.

(b) When jumping into flame or oil-covered surface.
(See par. 37.)

(c) When swimming through flame or oil, or under
water. (See par. 41.)

c. Putting on life jacket Bend over and pass one arm
through the jacket (fig. 13 [1]); straighten up, throw the
jacket over the shoulders, and insert other arm. A double
bowknot (tie a loose, ordinary bowknot; before clos-
ing it pass one bow through opening in knot a second
time) is used to tie the straps. Any other knot, espe-
cially when wet, is difficult to untie in an emergency.
The lower inside straps are tied first (fig. 13 [2]), then
lower outside and upper outside straps. Life jacket
must be tied properly, securely, and snugly (fig. 13 [3]);
otherwise it may become necessary to use the hands to
hold jacket on while floating.

16. LIFE-PRESERVER LIGHT AND WHISTLE (fig. 13
[3]). The waterproof life-preserver light, battery-oper-
ated, attracts attention to the floating survivor. It is
turned on by screwing on the red cap as far as it will
turn. The light has a cord and large safety pin by
which it is pinned to the jacket. It also has a clip on its
side by which it is attached high on the jacket to gain
maximum visibility and to keep it out of water. The
life-preserver light is red to distinguish floating per-

20

[1] Bend over, pass one arm through jacket, straighten up, tlirow
jacket over shoulders and insert other arm.

Figure 1). Putting on. life jacket.

21

22

Figure 13. Putting on life jacket— Continued.

23

sonnel from floating equipment, which shows a white
light. The whistle, worn at all times fastened to a
cord around the neck, also is valuable to attract atten-
tion. Immersion in salt water for a long time may affect
the voice but it will still be possible to blow a whistle.
Carbon dioxide life belts are ordinarily issued to am-
phibious troops. Description and use of these belts are
detailed in paragraph 95.

17. LIFE NETS. a. General Life nets or cargo nets are
normally hung over the side of a ship and are used as
broad ladders for disembarking into landing craft or
abandoning ship. Their width allows four to six men
to climb down abreast, and all men should know how
to use them quickly and safely.

b. Descending nets. Four to six men abreast start
over the ship's side simultaneously, left foot first. The
left foot is always swung over first whether descending
from our own or allied vessels. When the first line of
soldiers has descended halfway, another line starts over
the side. Thus there are always a line of soldiers start-
ing over the side, a line halfway down, and a line at
the lower end of the net.

c. Methods of descending. There are two methods
of climbing down life nets.

(1) Hands grasp a single vertical strand, the feet being
on the horizontal strands on either side of the vertical
strand. (See fig. 14 [1].)

(2) Hands grasp the outside strands of a group of
three vertical strands, the feet being on either side of
the center strand. (See fig. 14 [2].)

(3) In either method the man grasps vertical, not
horizontal, strands of the net so that his hands will not
be stepped on by a man descending above him. Hands
are well above the head, head up, feet skipping one
square at a time. Longer steps slow the descent. Look
up, not down.

d. Dropping from net In vessels not combat-loaded
the nets may not reach the water and it may be neces-
sary to drop from the end of the net. To drop from the

24

net, place both feet on the same horizontal strand near
the bottom of the net. Now bring the hands down until
the body is hanging in a crouched, position with arms

Figure 14. Descend life net, [1] by grasping single vertical strand
with feet on horizontal strands on either side of vertical strand;
[21 by grasping outside strands of group of three vertical strands
with feet on either side of center vertical strand.

25

bent. Kick with the legs (fig. 15 [1]) and push with the
hands, bringing the body vertical as you drop into the
water (fig. 15 [2]).

figure 15. Jumping from life net. [1J Place feet on same hori-
zontal strand nearest bottom of net; descend into a crouch using
hands, arms are bent. [2] Shove off with hand and feet, and
straighten body.

26

e. Lowering survivors. To lower a disabled survivor
over the side, place him in the middle of an unattached
cargo net, bring the lengthwise net corners together, and

Figure 16. Lower disabled survivor using a cargo net. Length-
u'ise corners are gathered and secured to lowering line.

27

attach a lowering line to them. By this means the dis-
abled survivor can be lowered any required distance to
the lifeboat or raft with the least risk of further injury.
(See fig. 16.)

in

Figure 17. Descend boom ladder one rung at a time hand under
liand using either rope, place leg on either side; keep rung ends
pointed at body. Leg and arm on same side move together.

28

18. BOOM LADDERS. These are rope ladders with
round wooden rungs, hung from a boom or other pro-
jection over a ship's side. They may be descended hand
under hand on either rope, placing a leg on either side
with the rung end toward the body; descend one rung
at a time, leg and arm on the same side working to-
gether. Thus, two men can use the ladder simulta-
neously. (See fig. 17.)

19. JACOB'S LADDERS. These are rope ladders with flat
steps. Hands grasp the vertical ropes and feet skip one
step at a time. Hand and leg on the same side move
together.

20. SINGLE ROPES, a. General use. Ropes of various
sizes and lengths are usually on deck. They can be at-
tached to parts of the ship and thrown over the side to.
descend to the water. It is always better to climb down
the side than to jump off a ship.

b. Methods of descending ropes. Climb over the side
and grasp the rope with the feet before grasping with the
hands to go down hand under hand. Grasp the rope one
hand over, not on, the other. Arms are slightly bent.
There should be a sensation of holding and gripping,
rather than hanging. Descend slowly, hand under hand.

c. Leg grips. The leg grip depends on the tautness or
slackness of the rope, its size and weight, the length of
descent, and the condition of the hands.

(1) Taut rope (fig. 18). On a taut rope the legs are
crossed with one knee drawn up and the toes lifted.
The rope runs along the inside of this leg, over the front
of the ankle, and down the outside edge of the foot.
The other foot is crossed over so it clinches the rope be-
tween the outside edges of the feet near the heels. Ap-
plying pressure with knees and feet slows the descent.

(2) Loose rope. When the rope is sufficiently loose
either of two leg grips may be used.

(a) Stirrup grip (fig. 19 [1]. Legs are straight and
held together. The rope lies along the outside of one

29

Figure IS. Descend taut rope hand under hand, with legs crossed,
one knee drawn up, and toes pointed up. Rope runs along inside oj
leg with knee draiun up, over front of ankle and down outside
edge of foot. Other foot is crossed over to clinch rope along out-
side edges of feet near heels. Apply pressure with knees and feet
to sloxu descent.

30

leg, under the foot and over the foot of the other leg.
Pressure of one foot against the other regulates the speed
of descent. Hand under hand method may be used or
the hands may slide together, taking a firm hold when
foot pressure stops the descent. If the hands are dis-
abled the rope is hugged with the arms, possibly with a
half turn around one arm and with the other arched
against it to check the slip.

[1] Rope lies along outside of one leg, under foot of that leg,
and over foot of other leg. Pressure of feet regulates descent.

Figure 19. Leg grips on loose ropes.

(b) Secure foot grip (fig. 19 [2]. This grip is best for
long descents where the arms may need to be rested.
The rope drops between the legs and across the instep
of one foot. The other foot steps on the rope where it
crosses the instep and, by applying pressure, grasps or
releases it.

d. Knotted ropes. (1) Ropes used for abandoning
ship usually have knots at frequent intervals. (See fig.

31

[2] Rope lies between legs and across instep of foot. Pressure of
other foot upon rope acts as brake.

Figure 19. Leg grips on loose rope— Continued.

20.) The feet and hands can easily grasp the rope just
above the knots, allowing some muscular relaxation and
preventing slips and rope burns. The feet are kept to-
gether, pressing the rope between the insteps. Legs and
arms are slightly bent.

(2) Grasp the rope with the hands just above a knot.
Release the feet and lower them on to the next knot.
Hold with the feet and bring the hands down one knot.

e. Deliberate descents. Rope descents should be de-
liberate and unhurried, legs and feet applying pressure
to prevent arm strain and the consequent slipping and
hurrying. Long or fast drops or slipping will cause
severe rope burns. Skillful use of the feet and legs is
the surest .safeguard.

f. Discipline. When a single rope is being used by
several men either at the same time or in succession they
should space themselves so that they do not crowd up,

32

Figure 20. Photograph of use of knotted ropes in abandoning
U.S.S. President Coolidge.

but keep well separated. Discipline must be main-
tained, and groups retained in control. Look out for
other men coming down ropes. A man above may slip
and fall heavily on the man below.

g. Climbing a rope. The rope is grasped with the
hands as far up as possible and, holding with the hands,
the legs are brought up as high as possible and grip the
rope, using the taut leg grip. The hands are relaxed
and reach for a new hold above (fig. 21 [1]); the legs
are moved up for a new grip (fig. 21 [2]) and the rope
then is climbed by alternately pulling with the hands
and holding fast with legs.

33

Figure 21. Climbing a rope. [1] Grasp rope overhead to [2]
limit of reach; use taut leg grip (fig. IS). Pull legs up high and
"brake" rope; relax hands and reach for new grip.

34

21. ABANDON-SHIP KIT (fig. 22). All vessels of 3,000
gross tons and over carry at least two abandon-ship kits.
The following items, composing the kit, are packed in a
watertight container:

20 i4~g ra * n syrettes of morphine.
48 J^-gram tablets of sulfadiazine in bottle.
10 Navy-type, watertight packages containing iy 2
grams of crystalline sulfanilamide.

4 ounces of oil-cleaning solution, in bottle with

screw cap.

5 -4-ounce tubes of 5 percent sulfadiazine— 10

percent tannic-acid jelly.
2 chemical heating pads.

Figure 22. Abandon-ship kit.

35

[ 1 ] Surette consists of glass-tube shield, collapsible tube and needle.

[2] Remove shield; hold wire stylette by hook and push through
needle into syrette thus breaking seal. Withdraw wire. Puncture
skin of arm or shoulder with needle held at 45" angle; squeeze
tube until Pat; withdraw needle.

Figure 23. Morphine tartrate syrette and method of injection.

36

The kits are kept in separate locations. The master of
the ship designates officers to take the kit if it becomes
necessary to abandon ship. The kit is buoyant. Usually
it is kept sealed, but it may be opened by the master of
the vessel for inspection or by inclusion of extra items
such as cigarettes or aspirin. The kit must not be so
overloaded that it loses its buoyancy. The case is
marked with orange or chrome yellow. The kit will also
contain three copies of the following directions:

For Giving Morphine

1. Remove the transparent shield from end of

syrette. (See fig. 23 [1].)

2. Holding wire by loop, push wire through needle

into syrette, thus breaking seal. Withdraw
wire.

3. Stick needle under skin of arm or shoulder, at

an angle of 45°, and squeeze until tube is Hat.
(See fig. 23 [2].)

4. Withdraw needle and throw away syrette.

5. Additional injections may be given every 3 hours

as long as necessary.

For Using Sulfadiazine Tablets

Give each wounded or burned man a single dose of
eight tablets, and no more.

For Sulfanilamide Powder

■ Open package of sulfanilamide and sprinkle powder
directly into wound; then apply a compress and band-
age. Sulfanilamide, properly used, will prevent or arrest
infection.

For Using Oil-Cleaning Solution

The solution is for removing fuel oil or the like from
eyelids, nose, and lips. A pledget of cotton or a small
piece of cloth is saturated with oil-cleaning solution and
rubbed lightly over the skin until oil is removed. To
allay or prevent infection or irritation of eyes from fuel
oil, eye ointment from first-aid kit should be used.

37

[1]

Figure 24. Lifeboat and equipment.

For Using Tannic- Acid Jelly

Apply thick layer of jelly to gauze compress, obtained
from first-aid kit, of sufficient size to cover the burned
area completely. Lay this dressing on the burn and
hold in place with a bandage loosely tied. On small
burns jelly may be used without a dressing, if desired.
If, when changing, dressing tends to stick, soak compress
in fresh or sea water to loosen it.

For Using Chemical Heating Pads

Chemical heating pads supply heat to bodies of per-
son suffering from shock. (See par. 63.) Patient must
be kept warm. The chemical heating pad may be ap-

38

[21

Figure 24. Lifeboat and equipment.— Continued.

plied to localized parts of the body to supply heat to
those parts. Wrap the pad in cloth or clothing to pre-
vent burning the skin. Directions are on heating pad.

22. LIFEBOATS. Every ship carries enough lifeboats
and rafts, equipped with food, water, medical equip-
ment, -and- other items, to accommodate all persons on
the ship. (See fig. 24 [ 1 ] and [2].) On combat-loaded
vessels powered landing craft replace most of the life-
boats. Lifeboat equipment has been carefully chosen
to aid men to survive exposure and to attract atten-
tion of rescue craft. The soldier will find in a lifeboat
the equipment listed below. This equipment is fastened

39

to the boat to prevent loss during rough weather or in
capsizing. It is kept to a minimum, to interfere as
little as possible with the men. in the boat. Passenger
capacity is marked on each side of the boat.

a. Bailer. Metal or wooden scoop with lanyard at-
tached, for bailing water.

b. Bilge pump. Pump made of materials not readily
deteriorated by salt water, permanently fastened well
down in center line of the boat. It has a removable
strainer. Pump requires priming when dry. This is
done by removing cap or plug from the T-fitting on
discharge side of pump, pouring about a quart of water
into the chamber, and replacing cap or plug.

c. Blankets. Each boat has at least six woolen blan-
kets in waterproof containers, for use of sick and injured.

d. Boathooks. Two white ash boathooks, 8 feet long
and \y 2 inches in diameter, for fending and retrieving
objects fallen overboard.

e. Bucket. One 2-gallon galvanized iron bucket with
lanyard attached.

f. Canvas hood and side spray curtain. This provides
shelter from wind, sea, and sun. The curtain may be
held in place by rods installed in rowlock sockets and
is transferred from side to side according to direction
of wind.

g. Chart, pilot. This tells the natural ocean currents
and prevailing winds. When abandoning ship all per-
sons are told approximate position of vessel so they can
use chart effectively.

h. Compass. One liquid compass. If the liquid has
evaporated, fresh water may be added, although it will
corrode metal parts. The compass should be held as
high as possible with its lubber's line directly over and
parallel to the center line of the boat. This height
lessens effect of metal equipment. On vessels equipped
with degaussing or demagnetizing equipment as protec-
tion against magnetic mines, the compass may become
demagnetized, but it will return to normal after a short
time. Therefore, check it with sun or stars before relying

40

on it fully. If inaccurate, keep it since it can be used
after it returns to normal.

i. Daytime distress signals. Four self-contained smoke
signals which will give a large volume of orange- or red-
dish-colored smoke while floating on the surface. They
should be thrown overboard to leeward. Leeward means
downwind— the direction toward which the wind is blow-
ing and not against it.

j. Distress lights (fig. 25). Twelve self-igniting red
lights in a watertight metal case. They give a brilliant
red flame of 500 candlepower for 2 minutes. Lights
should not be removed from case except for use. Flare

-Figure 25. Bullet-hole plugs and distress light.

41

must be held to Jeeward to prevent burning particles
from falling on persons in lifeboat.

k. Ditty bag. Canvas bag containing sail twine and
needles.

L Drinking cups. At least three drinking cups of
rust-resisting material, lanyard attached. Cans are saved
to give men receptacles for eating and drinking.

m. Drinking water. In each lifeboat, minimum
amount of fresh water in quarts is 15 times carrying
capacity marked on each side of boat. Water is stored
in metal tanks or in wooden kegs, called breakers. Rust
in drinking water is harmless. Each container is legibly
marked with its capacity in U. S. gallons. All available
containers should be used to collect rain water to aug-
ment the water supply.

n. First-aid kit A first-aid kit containing the equip-
ment listed below and packed in a strong, watertight
container is provided in each boat:

2 units— 1-inch adhesive compress, each unit con-
taining 16 compresses.
1 unit— ammonia inhalant, four tubes, 2 cc. per

tube; and 4 drinking cups.
1 scissors, blunt.

1 unit— gauze compress, 24 by 72 inches.

2 units— 3 ounces tannic acid jelly in not less than
two tubes. The jelly is 10 percent tannic acid
with 5 percent sulfadiazine.

1 unit— 3 eye pads, adhesive strips; 3 tubes eye

dressing not less than y$ ounce each.
I unit— 3 vials of iodine, 10 cc. each.

1 unit— 4-inch bandage compress.

2 units— 4 each, 2-inch bandage compress.
1 unit— triangular bandage, 40-inch.

1 unit— 6 yards of 4-inch gauze bandage.

2 units— containing tourniquet and forceps.
1 unit— splint-wire or equivalent.

1 dozen safety pins,
o. Fishing kit (fig. 26). This kit is packed in a metal,
waterproof, key-opening can. Marking on container
reads, "Emergency Fishing Kit— Open Only for Actual

42

figure 26. Emergency fishing kit.

Emergency Use." Simple and complete instructions for
use of kit, printed on waterproof paper, are included
with kit.

p. Flashlight One portable, watertight, focusing
flashlight with one extra lamp and three extra batteries.

q. Grab rails. Grab rails attached to outside of each
lifeboat near the waterline and extending about two-
thirds length of boat. They provide means of clinging
to boat if overturned.

r. Hatchets. A single-edge hatchet, lanyard attached,
at each end of the boat.

s. Illuminating oil. One gallon of oil for lantern.

t. Lantern. One lantern with enough oil to burn 9
hours. Two additional wicks.

u. Lifeline. A rope running entire length of each
side, and fastened to boat at about 3-foot intervals.
Small floats are on the rope between fastenings. The
lines are for swimmers to grasp when reaching the boat.

v. Life preservers. Two life preservers which can be
given men lacking preservers or used with rope attached
to throw to men in the water.

w. Locker. A locker or box for storage of small items
such as signal flag, ditty bag, bullet plugs, matches, com-

43

pass, signaling mirrors, drinking cups, first-aid kit, lan-
tern, extra batteries and wicks, and fishing kit.

x. Manila line. About 180 feet of 1-inch rope for gen-
eral use.

y. Mast and sails. A mast with at least one main-
sail and jib, with necessary gear, protected by a canvas
cover.

z. Matches. Three boxes of friction matches in a
watertight container.

aa. Oars. A total of seven to nine oars including one
steering oar.

ab. Painters. Manila rope secured to bow to make
the boat fast. Used, when lowering lifeboat, to keep
boat attached to ship.

ac. Plugs. Two plugs, attached to boat with chains,
used to fit into drain hole in the bottom of the boat.
The drain hole is kept plugged except when draining.
However, check bottom of lifeboat to see the plug is in.

ad. Propellers. Hand-operated propellers to maneu-
ver the lifeboat away from the sinking ship.

ae. Provisions. Each boat carries the following pro-
visions for each person the boat is certified to carry:

23 ounces of biscuits (C ration).
14 ounces of pemmican.
14 ounces of milk tablets.

Note. 14 ounces of chocolate tablets may be substituted for 14
ounces of biscuits.

of. Oarlocks. A sufficient number of oarlocks are
furnished, attached to boat by separate chains. These
are inserted into place on top of boat sides and oars
are then placed inside them.

ag. Rudder and tiller. A rudder and tiller to be fitted
to it.

ah. Sea anchor. A conical-shaped anchor of canvas
into which a conical container of storm oil may be
fastened, see ai below. When riding out a storm the
sea-anchor line runs over the bow to keep the boat
headed into the wind and thus prevent capsizing. A
boat anchor, a bucket on a line, three oars lashed into

44

a triangle and weighted, or a similar device will serve
as a sea anchor if it provides drag.

ai. Storm oiL A container holding 1 gallon of vege-
table or mineral oil. It is fitted with two valves, one at
each end, which should be opened slightly to allow a
slow seepage of oil. The oil tends to reduce the forming
of waves by wind and breaking of seas. Lashing rings
are provided on the container to secure it inside the
canvas tip of the sea anchor.

a). Signal flag. A yellow or bright orange bunting, 4
feet 6 inches by 8 feet, with ties for attaching to a staff
for signaling rescue parties. To signal airplanes two
men hold ends of flag and tilt it from side to side.

ak. Signaling mirrors. (1) Two polished metal mir-
rors with about 20 square inches of reflecting surface on
each side and a sighting hole in center. They are coated
with grease and wrapped in a container marked "signal-
ing mirrors." In clear weather flashes may be seen up
to 10 miles. Any reflecting surface such as a flattened
tin can or wet blade of an oar, may be used.
(2) To use signaling mirror (fig. 27)

(a) Face a point about half-way between sun and
observed object.

(b) Hold mirror in one hand about 4 inches from the
face, and through hole or cross in mirror, sight object
to be signaled.

(c) Hold the other hand about 12 inches behind mir-
ror in line with sun and with the hole through the mir-
ror, so a small spot of light appears on the hand. The
spot of light on the hand is reflected on the side of the
mirror facing the user.

(d) Now tilt mirror so the spot of light on it dis-
appears through the hole in it, keeping the observed
object sighted through the hole. In this position sun-
light will be reflected to the observed object.

(c) Practice flashing from bow to stern to acquire
efficiency in its use.

Note. When angle between sun and observed object is small,
the spot of light will appear on the face of the observer, thus
allowing both hands to be used in tilting mirror.

45

Figure 27. To use signaling mirror: a. Face point about half-
way between sun and observed object, b. Hold mirror in one hand
about 4 inches from face and sight object to be signaled through
hole or cross in mirror, c. Hold other hand about 12 inches
behind mirror in line with sun and hole through mirror so that
small spot of light appears on -hand and is reflected to back face
of mirror (side toward observer), d. Tilt mirror so that spot or
light on mirror disappears through hole, at the same time keeping
observed object sighted through hole. e. When angle between sun
and observed object is small, spot of light will appear on face of
observer thus allowing both hands to tilt mirror.

46

aL Signal pistol (fig. 28). A signal pistol with lan-
yard attached and 12 parachute signal cartridges are
contained in a watertight metal case. The cartridge will
give off a brilliant red flame of 20,000 candlepower at a
height of 150 feet for about 30 seconds. Even by day
the bright light or the smoke may attract rescue parties..

am. Bullet-hole plugs (fig. 28). About 25 soft wood
conical plugs 3 inches long and tapered from to
14-inch diameter for plugging bullet holes. To fill
jagged holes cloth may be wrapped around the plugs
for insertion.

48

23. LIFE RAFT (fig. 29). a. Life rafts are of several
different types. They are stowed on ships on skids or
launching ways so they may be easily released into the
water either by a tripping device or automatically when
the ship sinks. Rafts will hold from 5 to 20 persons
and are provided with equipment according to their
normal capacity. Rafts may be used either side up.
Equipment is kept in a compartment which can be
reached through a trap door on either side or is kept
lashed to the sides of the raft.

b. Equipment consists of items similar to those found
in a lifeboat, and is used the same way. It consists of:

2 bridles for making fast to painter at each end

of raft.
12 distress lights.

2 enameled drinking cups.

3 quarts of drinking water per person.

Figure 30. Carley float released into water.

49

1 first-aid kit.

1 fishing kit.

1 life line.

90 feet of %-inch manila line.

1 box friction matches.

4 oars.

1 painter."

5 oarlocks.

1 sea anchor.

1 self-igniting water light.

1 signal flag.

2 signaling mirrors.

1 gallon of storm oil.

25 bullet-hole plugs.
Provisions

50

Figure 31. One-man carbon-dioxide rubber boat.

24. LIFE FLOATS, a. A life float (fig. 30) is another

type of emergency buoyancy equipment that may be
available. It is a doughnut-type float of at least 15-
person capacity that is launched overboard or floats free
of sinking ship.

b. A white electric water light is attached to each
float by a suitable lanyard. At least two paddles are
lashed to the sides. Other equipment aboard a float
will vary with the type of vessel but all of it will be
lashed securely by suitable lanyards which travel com-
pletely around the float. This type of lashing permits
easy access to equipment even if the float has been
launched bottom side up. '

25. CARBON-DIOXIDE RUBBER BOAT (fig. 31). This
is a collapsible rubber boat self-inflated by carbon diox-
ide contained in a large bulb with a hand valve. The
boat has bags along the inside for equipment. Equip-
ment varies with the type of boat but usually includes:

1 compass.
1 first-aid kit.

1 fishing kit.

2 collapsible oars.
Provisions.

Sail fabric.
Signaling mirror.
Smoke grenades.
Water.

51

SECTION IV
ABANDONING SHIP

26. GENERAL, a. Assignments. Men will be assigned
abandon-ship stations and shown the routes to them.
Often, these routes will be marked by arrows painted on
the floor of passageways. Lifeboats or rafts will also be
assigned; learn the number and location of these so
well you can find them in the dark.

b. Inspection of equipment. Since men are moved
frequently to give others an opportunity to share the
limited bunk space, platoon commanders inspect the
equipment of every soldier at least once every 3 days.

c. Counterintelligence. Blackout at night, use of
ship's head (latrine) at prescribed times, and the pro-
hibition against throwing overboard garbage or other
matter are rigidly enforced. Other counterintelligence
measures are prescribed for each ship.

d. Abandon-ship drills. These are held at different
hours, without warning, and simulate real emergencies
as far as possible. Drills are first held by day to enable
men to become familiar with locations of ladders, cables,
equipment, and projecting parts, so they can find their
way to stations in the dark. Drills in the dark are given
later. Alternate routes to stations are prescribed. At
different times one or more routes are blocked off so that
men must use others and thus become familiar with
them. Instruction in leaving the ship includes use of
safety equipment, special precautions to be taken, and
conduct in the water and on lifeboats and rafts.

52

27. INDIVIDUAL SAFETY PROCEDURE. When aboard
ship follow these rules unless instructed otherwise:

a. Always have your life preserver or safety belt,
whistle, rope, life-preserver light, and a full canteen of
water with you. Wear the preserver during the day
and use it as a pillow at night.

b. Do not wear leggings while aboard troop ship.

c. Smoke only at the times and places designated.

d. Keep out of the way of the ship's crew members;
do not interfere with the performance of their duties.
Movement of traffic on deck is counterclockwise: on the
starboard side— toward the bow; on the port side— toward
the stern.

e. Learn thoroughly the procedure for meeting emer-
gencies such as abandoning ship, fire, and air attack.

f. Know the emergency signals for all ship's drills.

g. Train yourself to get hold of essential personal
equipment in the dark. Sleep as nearly fully clothed
as conditions permit.

h. Always dress warmly. If you have woolen under-
wear, wear it at all times, whether in tropic or arctic
regions. It protects you against both cold air and
sunburn.

i. Get all the exercise you can. Apply yourself vigor-
ously in any planned exercise or athletics.

j. Keep doors to passages and corridors hooked open
at all times unless otherwise directed by ship's officers or
master. An explosion may slam unhooked doors and
change the structure of the ship sufficiently to jam closed
doors.

k. If on deck when bombs hit the ship, lie flat on the
deck to avoid blast and flying fragments. If you cannot
lie down, steady yourself against something solid to
avoid being thrown.

28. ABANDON-SHIP CONDUCT, a. Use common sense.
When the abandon-ship signal is given, go to your
abandon-ship station quietly and quickly and wait for
orders. Keep silent so that orders may be heard clearly.
Learn alf the possible ways of reaching your abandon-

53

ship station from the various sections of the ship you
are permitted to enter. If the usual route is blocked
you must be able to get to it somehow even in the dark.

b. Do not get into the lifeboat or attempt to lower it.
Wait for orders. Normally, several members of the crew
are assigned to take charge of each lifeboat. If one or
more of the crew assigned to your lifeboat is a casualty,
be prepared to assist in lowering the boat (par. 30c);
otherwise, keep out of the crew's way. If your lifeboat
or raft is damaged do not get into another without per-
mission of the man in charge of your lifeboat. When
ordered over the side, use the nets, ladders, and ropes
hanging over the side at abandon-ship stations to board
lifeboats or rafts which have been lowered. Do not
risk injuring occupants by throwing anything down into
a lifeboat. Before abandoning ship, listen for announce-
ment of her approximate position, which will normally
be given. This information enables you to set a course
for the nearest land.

29. ON YOUR OWN. Even in extreme emergency, all
persons aboard a ship act according to orders until the
order "every man for himself" is given. This order
means to get into the water immediately and at least
50 yards away from the ship. Jump only as a last resort.
Use ladders, nets, or ropes when you can. (See par. 35.)

30. ABANDON-SHIP PROCEDURE; IN LIFEBOATS,
a. General. A lifeboat commander and crew are as-
signed to every lifeboat. This group takes charge of the
passengers and has the duty of getting the lifeboat into
the sea. In the absence of such a crew or when only one
or two ship's members have been assigned to the lifeboat,
anyone may be called upon to assist in lowering and
launching the lifeboat. The following paragraphs ex-
plain the basic elements of such procedure.

b. Suspension of lifeboats. (1) Lifeboats are sus-
pended on "davits"— two metal members that extend
out over the ship's side. The lifeboat is fastened to the
davits by two pairs of blocks, one pair at the. bow and

54

the other at the stern. The line running from each
upper block is called the boat's fall. Paying out the falls
lowers the lifeboat. These falls are made fast to the
ship with various releasing devices. The lower blocks
are secured to the lifeboat by means of simple, quick-
release devices. To every lifeboat a sea painter (long
length of line) is also attached; one end is made fast
to the boat and the other to the ship at a point well
forward of the lifeboat. .

(2) Ordinarily ships are equipped with skids. Skids
are made of wood or other suitable material and are
fitted over projections and openings in the way of life-
boats, between the ship's deck and her light load line.
In the absence of skids, the lifeboats are provided with
skates (made of wood) which slide over the ship's projec-
tions and openings as boat is being lowered, thus pro-
tecting her from damage. Skates are easily detached
once the boat is in water. It may sometimes be neces-
sary to improvise skates; know how they are made and
installed.

c. Lowering lifeboats. (1) Place all passengers in boat
except two men at each fall; one to see that falls are kept
clear and one to lower.

(2) Have two men in boat ready to fend off from
ship's side. Have another man place the steering oar in
readiness.

(3) Have the sea painter led well forward of davits.

(4) Lower away on botli falls evenly until boat is just
above the surface of the water. At this point lower away
on stern fall so stern enters water first. Always remem-
ber this. Lowering bow first will capsize boat.

(5) As soon as lifeboat is waterborne, trip the releas-
ing devices immediately.

(6) When ship is still underway, the lifeboat will lag
alongside until sea painter is taut. Have man at steering
oar so steer that boat will not sheer into the ship's side
or sheer away from ship's side until ready. The sea
painter aids the steersman in this maneuver. (See fig.
32.)

55

Figure 32. Action of sea painter in lifeboat. Pull of sea painter
on lifeboat forces boat away from ship's side. Sea painter is re-
leased before it forms a right angle to ship's side.

56

(7) Have remainder of crew come aboard by the most
expedient means.

(8) Order the oars readied for rowing; direct steers-
man to point bow away from the ship.

(9) When lifeboat is well away from ship, order the
painter released. The painter is secured to lifeboat by
a toggle pin with a chain lanyard. A pull on the lanyard
should release toggle pin; if it is stuck, cut the sea
painter. (See fig. 33.)

(10) As soon as sea painter is released, row away from
the ship.

Figure 33. Toggle-pin attachment for sea painter. Pull on chain
or lanyard to release sea painter. Toggle-pin attachments are
also used to suspend life floats.

31. ABANDON-SHIP PROCEDURE; LAUNCHING
RAFTS AND FLOATS, a. Rafts. Rafts are stowed on
skids, launching ways, or other means to provide quick
release of the rafts directly into the water, and arranged
so they have the best chance of floating free if there is
no time to launch them.

(1) Each skid or launching way is provided with a

57

releasing device, usually a pelican hook. Pulling on a
line attached to pelican hook trips it and releases the
stops holding the raft.

(2) Before releasing raft be sure sea painter is fas-
tened to it and the ship. The sea painter in this instance
prevents raft from floating away before survivors can
reach it.

b. Floats. Floats may be suspended along the ship's
sides or inboard on deck. In either case suspension is
by toggle pin and lanyard. (See fig. 33.) Before releas-
ing overboard be sure each has a sea painter.

32. LEAVING THE SHIP. a. When the lifeboat is being
lowered into the water all occupants who are not aiding
the crew should remain lowtin the boat and out of the
way. All men must be quiet and take orders only from
the man in charge. The lower ends of all ladders, nets,
or ropes down the ship's side should be pulled out and
away from the ship to aid men descending into the boat.
The lifeboat must be kept away from the ship's side to
prevent its being crushed or capsized. The lifeboat
should be moved rapidly at least 50 yards from the ship
to escape the suction of the sinking ship. Once out of
the danger area, the sea anchor should be dropped and
all men should remain low in the boat until the con-
fusion is over. The mast and sails are rigged only when
the men have quieted down, because in their excitement
they may fall overboard. Without endangering the
entire boatload as many survivors as possible should be
picked up from the water. Men may hang on to the
life line around the lifeboat. If there is room, men on
rafts should shift over into the lifeboat. All boats and
rafts should stay together to increase the chances of
rescue and bolster morale.

b. Before the signal to abandon ship is sounded, all
persons are given the following information: the ship's
approximate location, the direction and distance to the
nearest land, and the result of SOS signals. If a rescue
ship has answered the SOS, lifeboats remain near the
spot where the ship sank. Otherwise, the location of the

58

ship and the distance and direction to land can be used
to steer a course.

c. If the lifeboat capsizes, five or six men can right it
by reaching over from one side and pulling down on the
keel or girth lines— ropes running across the bottom of
the boat. (See fig. 34.)

Figure 34. Right capsized lifeboat by pulling down on girth lines.

33. BOARDING LIFEBOATS AND RUBBER BOATS,
a. Lifeboats. (1) Because of their high sides and gen-
eral shape lifeboats should be boarded from the center
of one side. Face the boat squarely, hook the arms over
the side, wait for the next swell to raise your body, and
with a kick roll into the boat.

(2) A man in the lifeboat should aid the survivor by
lifting him above the edge of the boat until his body
can be bent at the waist. This brings the head and
shoulders into the boat. (See fig. 35.) The rescuer
then grasps a leg and pivots the rest of the body into
the boat.

b. Rubber boats. A lone survivor should board a
rubber boat over the bow or stern. With more than one
man, entrance over the side is recommended. One man
clings to the side of the boat. The other, on the op-

59

Figure 35. Help survivor into boat by lifting him until body can
be bent at waist; grasp leg and pivot rest of body into boat.

posite side, places one arm in the boat and locks it
against the side. He then grasps the top of the side with
his other hand, liEts his leg on the same side as the arm
in the boat and hooks the foot inside the boat. (See fig.
36.) As the next swell lifts the boat, he pulls with the
arm and leg in the boat, kicks down with the foot in
the water, and rolls into the boat. The other survivor
then boards the same way.

34. ENEMY STRAFING. Enemy aircraft may strafe the
boat. Because of its high speed, the airplane's attack
will be brief. Bullets from low-flying airplanes either
ricochet off the water or penetrate no more than 24
inches below the surface. Hence, all who are physically
able should go overboard prior to attack and bob under
the water 24 inches. If sails are set, lower them or boat
will sail away by herself. Another defense is to swim
away from boat at right angles to airplane's line of

60

flight. All men who cannot get into the water should
drop to the bottom of the boat. If all men go over-

Figure 36. Board rubber boat over the side when there are two
or more survivors. One man clings to side of boat. The other,
on opposite side, places one arm in boat and locks it against side.
He then grasps top of side with other hand, lifts leg over side and
hooks foot inside boat. As next swell lifts boat, he pulls with arm
and leg in boat, kicks down with foot in water, and rolls into boat.

61

board, the strongest swimmers should grasp ropes from
the boat to keep it from dritfing away with the current
or wind. Immediately after the attack plug up all bullet
holes with the wooden plugs and cloth.

35. ABANDON-SHIP PROCEDURE; OVER THE SIDE.

Observe the following precautions when ordered to
abandon ship over the side:

a. Enter the water with the idea of reaching a boat,
raft, or other object which will support you. If possible,
choose your objective first.

b. Avoid entering the water—

(1) Where there is oil or flame.

(2) Between the ship and a boat or raft close to it,
which might crush you against the side.

(3) Near the propellers, if the ship is under way.

(4) . Amidships, as your vessel may have a bilge keel
at that point which cannot be seen under water but may
cause serious injury if struck by you when falling.

c. Enter the water—

(1) From the part of the ship nearest the water, fore
or aft if possible.

(2) On the windward side. An exception to this may
arise when ship has been struck on the windward side
and is losing oil or gasoline on that side. Under these
circumstances, enter water on opposite side and imme-
diately row or swim away from ship, beyond her stern
if possible.

(3) At a spot free of debris.

(4) Where barnacles are fewest.

d. Follow the instructions in paragraphs 17 through
20.

36. JUMPING WITHOUT OIL. a. Precautions; jumping
with life jacket When all other means of leaving the
ship are being used to capacity or are out of order, jump,
don't dive, and look before you jump. Observe the
following precautions in addition to those outlined in
paragraph 10:

62

(1) Take a deep breath before jumping.

(2) With the downward roll of the ship, step forward
as though taking the next stride, and, springing from
the other foot, bring the legs together in the air. Drop
vertically into the water. When lower side of listing
vessel also is windward side, take care to avoid being
washed back against vessel.

(3) Do not look down. Keep your head up.

(4) Jump as far from the ship as you can.

(5) Do not try to break your fall with the hands or
arms.

(6) Keep legs together. After entering the water open
them to check depth of plunge.

(7) Use of arms, (a) Without life preserver. Hold
the nose and protect the face.

(b) With life preserver. See paragraph 15b.

1. Jump, holding the jacket in one hand; if it is ■

jerked from your hand when you hit the
water, recover it when you come to the sur-
face. (See fig. 37 [1])

2. Secure jacket to your belt with a short length

of line; enter water as in (a) above. (See
fig. 37 [2]). Recover it when you come to
the surface.

3. Secure jacket tightly to body by straps; with

arms on top of it, press down hard with fore-
arms, one hand holding the nose (fig. 9);
exert plenty of muscular force to hold down
jacket and prevent its striking your chin
when you hit the water.

b. Shirt as support To use shirt as support in the
water, button it completely before jumping. Draw the
front out of the trousers, and hold it down and forward
with arms fully extended, 6 to 10 inches from the body.
(See fig. 38.) This causes the shirt to fill with air, and
it will aid in bringing your body rapidly to the surface.
By assuming the breast-stroke position on the water, an
air pocket is formed in the back of the shirt. This pro-
vides some support for a short time.

63

c. Trousers as support. Remove and wet or dampen
your trousers. Tie a knot at or near the end of each
leg. Button the fly. Grasp the trousers by the waist,

Figure 37. Jumping with life preserver from liigh freeboard.
[1J Hold life preserver in one hand. [2] Secure it to your belt
with a short line.

64

Figure 38. Jumping to use shirt as support in water. Button shirt
before jumping; draw shirt front out of trousers and hold it down
and forward to scoop up the air.

65

legs down, and hold in front of your body. (See fig.
39 [1]). Flip the trousers over and behind the head,
arms extended, wrists flexed so that the backs of the
hands are down. (See fig. 39 [2].) Jump, and, as the

Figure 39. Jumping to use trousers as support in water. [1] Tie
knot at end of each trouser leg; button fly, [2] Flip trousers over

head.

feet hit the water, snap the hands forward from the
wrists to get the waist of the trousers under water. (See
fig. 39 [3].) The air which is trapped in the legs helps
return you quickly to the surface. For surface support,
take a prone position and place a leg of the trousers on

66

either side of your body, below the arm pits. (See fig.
39 [4].)

Figure 39. Jumping to use trousers as support in ivatcr— continued.

[3] As feet hit water wrists flip forward bringing knuckles up as
body enters water. [4] Take prone position and place one leg
of trousers under each arm pit.

67

Figure 40. Jumping to use barracks bag as support in water.
Wet or dampen bag and jump as with trousers in figure 39.
Hold bag to prevent its overturning.

68

d. Barracks bag or pillow case. Wet or dampen the
bag and proceed as with trousers. (See fig. 40a.) After
entering the water, hold the bag with both arms to pre-
vent overturning. (See fig. 40£>.) If sufficient air has
not been trapped, take a big breath, submerge, exhale
into the mouth of the bag, and rise to the surface.

e. When jumping with sheet, poncho, squares of
canvas. Gather or knot the four corners to form a bag.
Proceed as outlined above.

37. JUMPING INTO OIL OR FLAME, a. GeneraL

Ships normally carry their fuel oil in tanks around the
sides which may be burst by bombs or torpedoes, releas-
ing the oil over the water. Oils are classified as thin
oils and thick oils. Fuel oil for ships is heavy oil, but
thin oil may be on board and be spread by the explosion.
Thick oils generally are not inflammable, but are ex-
tremely difficult to move through, whether swimming or
in a boat. Never jump into or try to swim through
thick oil. Distance from the ship to which oil or flames
spread depends upon the following:

(1) Speed of ship. If the ship is making headway the
oil will stream off to the rear. If the ship is still, the oil
may surround the ship.

(2) Wind. The wind may blow the oil or flame away
from or back to the ship.

(3) Part of ship hit.

(4) State of sea. Whether smooth or rough.

(5) Temperature of water. In cold water the oil may
congeal and remain in one area.

(6) Amount of oil on the water. As the oil layer
spreads it gets thinner until it can no longer spread.

b. Precautions. When necessary to jump from a ship
and there is surface oil or flame, observe the following
precautions in addition to those outlined in paragraphs
10 and 35.

(1) Remove your life preserver and anything else
which might carry you to the surface into oil or flame.
Take off your shoes, but keep shirt, trousers, and socks.

69

The carbon-dioxide life belt may be retained if it has not
been inflated.

(2) To prevent trapping air under your clothing,
fasten all buttons on shirt and trousers, and tuck trouser
legs into the socks.

(3) If necessary to jump into oil or flame, jump to
windward and swim to windward. The wind will tend
to blow the oil or flame away from you, instead of driv-
ing them with you.

(4) Close your eyes and mouth before entering the
water.

38. SWIMMING AWAY FROM THE SHIP. a. Once in
the water, immediately move away from the ship, using
the elementary back stroke to protect against injury from
explosions from the ship, torpedoes, or bombs. (See
par. 64b.) If there are no lifeboats or rafts to swim to,
move at least 50 yards from the ship to escape the suc-
tion of the sinking ship. When you are beyond this
danger zone, remember that buoyancy is the main thing;
the distance you swim is relatively unimportant unless
land is in sight. Use any debris or wreckage as support.
Lash yourself to it if possible. Retain clothing and shoes
as protection from the weather, salt, and oil.

b. It may be necessary to undress in the water either
to remove the weight of clothing and equipment or to
inflate the clothing as support. To undress, take a deep
breath, assume the jellyfish float with the arms hanging
relaxed, and proceed in a natural manner to remove
equipment or clothing. When a fresh breath is needed
a stroke or two, as in a modified breast stroke, will bring
your mouth above the surface. Make all- movements
slow and deliberate. Do not discard any clothing un-
less forced to, as it may be useful later. Shoes can be
tied together and hung around your neck. (See fig. 41.)

' 39. SWIMMING THROUGH UNIGNITED OIL. After
entering the water, open your eyes and swim away
from the ship. While under water, look for thin spots
or breaks in the oil, indicated by lighter areas. If your

70

[1]

Figure 41. Removing shoes in water. First take up the jellyfish
float; draw one leg up and with both hands untie shoe lace;
loosen lace and remove shoe.

breath becomes short before you have found a break,
come to the surface with hands and arms preceding the
head, and eyes closed. Scatter the oil by a pushing and
sweeping arm motion as in a modified breast stroke.
Kick your feet hard, to rise as far as possible above water
before breathing. Open eyes and try to locate the nearest
clear spot before again submerging. While above the
surface, keep sweeping the oil aside. Close your eyes
before submerging. Remove oil from eyes as explained
in paragraph 65.

40. SWIMMING THROUGH FIRE. a. Jump feet first to
windward of ship or airplane. (See fig. 9.) If jumping
with life vest from a moderate height, as from an air-
plane, cover eyes, nose, and mouth with both hands as
in figure 42. Take a deep breath; hold breath until you
rise to the surface.

b. Before reaching the surface look for thin spots or

71

[2]

Figure 41. Removing shoes in water— Continued, a. Wind both
ends of shoe lace once around index finger and draw ends through
loop, forming a knot. b. If lace is short, slip hand through loop
so shoe will hang from waist; this leaves hand free. With long
lace, bend loop over itself to form a slip noose for wrist, c. Re-
move other shoe in the same way. d. Tread water and pass one
shoe-lace loop through other, e. Pass either shoe through its own
loop thus securing laces of both shoes. Hang shoes around neck
and continue swimming.

72

breaks in the fire where a breath may be obtained.
These spots can be recognized by their relative dulness;
bright spots mean hot, strong fire. If a break is found,
rise into it; if no break is found, rise into the thinnest
spot available.

c. Just before breaking through the surface, cross
your arms on forehead, palms up, and push upward
with a strong kick. When breaking the surface, swing

your arms overhead to splash flames away from head,
face, and arms. (See fig. 43.)

d. Swim into the wind. (See fig. 44.) Use the breast
stroke. Before taking each stroke splash water ahead
and to the sides. Keep mouth and nose close to the
■water. Duck your head every third or fourth stroke to
keep it cool. If there are several men, swim single file.
Let the strongest swimmer splash a path so the rest can
follow safely in his wake.

73

Figure 43. Just before you pop to surface, make a breathing hole
in flames by swinging arms overhead, splashing flames away from
head, face, and arms.

Figure 44. Swim into the wind. Use breast stroke. Splash water
ahead and to side before taking each stroke. Keep your head cool
by ducking underwater every third or fourth stroke.

74

75

41. SWIMMING UNDERWATER THROUGH FIRE. If

the 'heat is too intense or flames too high, swim under
water. (See fig. 45.) To do this:

a. Splash flames away from body.

b. Hold head near water level.

c. If wearing life vest, deflate it by releasing valves.

d. Take a deep breath but do not inhale fumes.

e. Sink beneath the surface, feet first.

f. Swim upwind as far as possible.

g. Splash away the flames as you come to the surface.
Take a deep breath and submerge again Repeat pro-
cedure until you are beyond the fire.

h. If wearing life vest, reinflate it by mouth. If you
cannot continue to swim under water, as a last resort
come to the surface as described above, and use the
breast stroke.

42. EMERGENCY FLOTATION IN WATER. When in
the water without a life preserver improvise expedients.

a. Use debris. Any floating debris and wreckage
should be used, shared with the greatest number of men.
It is better to cling to planks, boxes, and other floating
articles than to climb upon them. Clinging to floating
debris adds its buoyancy to that of your body. Lash
yourself to debris if possible. Trying to climb up on an
object often leads to frustration and rapid exhaustion.
Only objects large enough for full support should be
boarded. Resting the hands or elbows on an object or
throwing the arms around it may provide sufficient sup-
port. A plank can be used as a surfboard by lying on it,
spreading the legs for balance, and using the arms and
legs for propulsion. (See fig. 46.)

b. Use shirt. Fasten all shirt buttons, including those
of collar and cuffs. Take a deep breath and assume the
jelly-fish float. With the fingers, form an opening in the
shirt front between the second and third buttons, bring
the lips to the opening, and expel the air into the shirt.
This action may be repeated. When the prone position
is resumed, an air pocket forms at the back of the shirt.
(See fig. 47.)

76

Figure 46. Lie on plank for flotation; use arms and legs for
propulsion.

77

Figure 47. Use shirt for flotation. Fasten all buttons. Take deep
breath and assume jellyfish float. Expel air into shirt between
second and third buttons. Repeat procedure if necessary.

c. Use trousers. Remove the trousers, tie a knot at
or near the end of each leg, and button the fly. While
treading water, hold the trousers above water by insert-
ing one arm in each leg. (See fig. 48 a.) This allows air
to fill each leg. Drop the arms quickly, pulling the waist
band under the surface. This traps air in each leg.
(See fig. 48 b.) The support can then be used in the
prone position by placing one trouser leg on each side
of the body under the arm pits. (See fig. 48 c.) If.
enough air has not been trapped in the legs, take a deep
breath, submerge holding the waist band below the sur-
face, and expel the air into the trousers.

78

Figure 48. Use trousers for flotation, a. Remove trousers, tie knot
at end of each trouser leg, and button fly. Insert one arm in each
leg while treading water, b. Drop arms quickly pulling waist band
under surface. If more air required, take deep breath and expel
it into trousers, c. Place one trouser leg on each side of body
under arm pits.

79

SECTJON V

OPERATION OF LIFEBOATS, RAFTS, AND
FLOATS

43. HANDLING LIFEBOATS, a. Rowing. Orders and
instructions for rowing a lifeboat will be given by the
boat's commander. In the absence of an assigned boat
commander or any other officer or specialist similarly
qualified, the following basic instructions for pulling an
oar should be used:

(1) Command: OARS. Sit erect in lifeboat, eyes di-
rectly astern, oar horizontal to water, and blade flat.
Position of hands on oars is with wrists down to get
blade flat.

(2) Command: STAND BY TO GIVE WAY. Lean
well forward, arms straight, wrists straight, eyes directly
astern, and blade of oar vertical and just clear of water.
Hands are in natural position for a heavy pull. This is
beginning of stroke.

(3) Command: GIVE WAY TOGETHER (STAR-
BOARD, PORT). Lower blade into water and pull
oar by leaning back. Arms are still straight, eyes astern.
This is middle of stroke.

(4) Give a final pull with arms; this is end of stroke.
Blade is pulled out of water at finish of pull.

(5) As blade comes out of water, in (4) above, wrists
are bent down causing blade to lie flat with water. This
is known as feathering the oar and always is done to
lessen wind resistance or resistance due to spray. From

80

this position repeat positions (2, 3, and 4) above in a
smooth, unbroken sequence.

b. Sailing. Sailing or operating a motor-powered
lifeboat should be left to the experienced hands aboard;
in their absence proceed with greatest care. In the
hands of unskilled operators, the lifeboat may broach
to and capsize in a matter of seconds. Even when sail-
ing under the direction of an expert, keep your eyes
open for an accidental jibe— the sudden shifting of the
boom from one side of the boat to the other. Jibes
have injured men seriously and thrown others over-
board. Don't rig sails when in doubt about the weather;
never attempt to sail or use power in heavy seas and
high winds; wait for calmer weather. Remember, the
duty of everyone aboard is to conserve strength to stay
afloat until rescued and not to promote exhaustion by
struggling with unknown and otherwise avoidable
hazards.

44. HANDLING LIFEBOATS IN SURF. It is of little
value to be in a lifeboat if you do not know how to
handle one safely in surf. The following paragraphs
are devoted to this and apply to all lifeboats whether
under sail, oars, or motor driven.

a. Running before a breaking sea or surf. The one
great danger when running before a broken sea is
"broaching to." The utmost attention must be directed
against such a disaster. Broaching to is the sudden
swerving of a boat from her course onto her side and
into the trough of a sea.

b. Action of boat in running before a breaking sea;
safe passage. The motion of the boat and the sea
being in the same direction, the boat makes no resistance
to the sea but is carried before it. If running in bow
first the surf on overtaking her will lift the stern and
bury the bow. If the boat has sufficient inertia (which
is proportional to weight) to allow the sea to pass her,
she will pass through the descending, the horizontal,
and the ascending positions in succession as the crest
of the wave passes beneath her stern, midships, and bow.

81

c. Action of boat in running before a breaking sea;
unsafe passage. If the boat^is overtaken by a break-
ing sea and does not have enough inertia to allow it to
pass, only the first of the three positions occurs. The
stern is elevated high in the air and the wave carries
the boat before it with the bow sharply depressed and
deeply immersed in the hollow of the sea. The water
here is comparatively stationary and it offers a resistance
while the crest of the sea having the actual motion forces
the stern of the boat forward. A boat in this position
may sometimes run a considerable distance until the
wave has broken and expended itself. However, the
boat must be skillfully steered to accomplish this. More
often a boat in this position will:

(1) Be broached to or completely capsized. This
happens when the bow is high and does not become
submerged. The resistance forward acting on one bow
will turn the boat's head slightly. The force of the surf
is transferred to the opposite quarter and the boat will
be turned broadside to the sea and be thrown on its

' beam ends or capsized. This is the way most boats are
upset in a surf, especially on flat coasts.

(2) Be thrown end over end. This happens when the
bow is so low it is driven under water and the forward
buoyancy is lost and the sea presses on the stern.

d. Effecting safe passage before a breaking surf.
There are different methods of procedure and the situa-
tion will govern which to use. In all instances the boat
should be steered by an oar over the stern or on one
quarter. Heavy weights should be kept out of the ex-
treme ends of the boat. When rowing in a heavy sea
the best trim is by the stern as this prevents the stern
being driven off by the sea.

(1) Before entering broken water turn a boat's bow
to the sea. Do this where the surf is lighter, as in the
relative lee and quiet of a point or bulge in the shore
line. Such a spot will most probably be found where
there is a gully or break in the shore line or a row of
cliffs behind the beach. Back in stern first, pulling a
few strokes ahead to meet each wave and then again

82

backing astern. This is the safest procedure if the boat
is small and the sea unusually heavy. It cannot be used
when under sail or power.

(2) Row to shore bow first by backing all the oars
on the approach of a wave and rowing ahead again as
soon as it has passed to the bow of the boat. Another
way is to have the aft oarsmen face the bow and start
rowing back at the approach of every wave.

(3) Row in bow first by towing astern a sea anchor,
drogue, or a makeshift drag weighted down by the boat's
anchor to give firmest hold on the water and thereby
prevent broaching.

e. Rowing to seaward (away from land). General
rules for rowing to seaward are:

(1) Control the boat to avoid breaking seas; that is,
handle the boat so each wave breaks ahead of her. If
the shore is flat and the broken water extends a good
distance off shore this will often be impossible.

(2) Against a head gale and a heavy surf, get all pos-
sible speed at the approach of every wave which cannot
be avoided.

(3) If more speed can be given a boat than is neces-
sary to prevent her from being carried back by surf, the
movement forward may be checked on the surf's ap-
proach and therefore the boat will make an easier pas-
sage over it.

f. Beaching lifeboat. Running before a surf or
broken sea and beaching or landing of a boat are two
distinct operations. The handling of lifeboats described
in b above has exclusive reference to running before a
surf where the shore is so flat the broken water some-
times extends 4 or 5 miles from the land. On an ex-
tremely steep beach the first heavy fall of broken water
will be on the beach itself. The outermost line of
broken water on a flat shore where the waves break in
18 or 24 feet of water is the heaviest and most dangerous.
Once inside this line the danger lessens because as the
water shoals its force is spent. Never forget the handling
of lifeboats is quite different in beaching on flat and
steep shores.

83

(1) Beaching on flat shore. Whether a lifeboat is
brought bow end in first or backed in (stern first), she is
kept at right angles to the sea until almost aground.
Each surf takes her closer to shore. In this situation
the boat must be rowed or backed in, using oars. The
crew will jump out grab the sides and drag her in.
Take in sail before attempting passage.

(2) Beaching on steep beach. A boat of any size can
be sailed right onto the beach whether under oars or sail.
When landing turn the boat's bow halfway around to-
ward the direction of the surf which will cause the boat
to be thrown over on its side. Everyone should get out
before boat is rolled in the wash on the" beach. The
strongest crew members should jump out first and hold
the boat to prevent her from washing back into the surf.
When landing this way never back a boat in stern first.

g. Beaching power lifeboat in a heavy surf. (1) A

lifeboat should enter the surf at a moderate speed with
the rudder unshipped, a steering oar lashed in place,
and an oar out on each quarter to assist in steering. If
the surf is dangerous and breaking close to the beach it
is safest to stop the engine and land under oars.

(2) Approach to shore should be deliberate and all
effort directed toward keeping the stern aimed directly
at overtaking seas. To obtain this slow approach and
certainty of aim, throw astern a sea anchor, drogue, or
makeshift drag weighted down by the boat's anchor to
give firmest hold on the water. This will check boat's
headway and hold her stern directly into the crest of
overtaking seas and is the foremost protection against a
sea breaking into and overturning her. In addition to
the use of sea anchor, check forward motion by reduc-
ing or reversing the engine or back water with the oars.
If circumstances warrant, have a man ready to cut the
tripping line and the sea-anchor rope. Keep a strain on
the rope because slack rope may foul the propeller.

(3) Reversing the engine in a surf is dangerous and
should be done only to check the forward motion of the
boat.

84

(4) Weight should be distributed to trim the boat by
the stern, causing it to drag.

(5) Use storm oil. (See par. 22ai.)

h. Summary. In the approach to the beach it is im-
portant the boat be kept stern to the sea regardless of
any course. Outside the surf it is more important to
make a particular course. Instructions in the foregoing
paragraphs are general. It is impossible to learn these
operations from a manual but the instructions serve to
alert everyone to the existing hazards and to offset com-
plete surprise and helplessness in an emergency.

45. HANDLING OF RAFTS AND FLOATS. This equip-
ment is designed essentially to provide flotation for sur-
vivors until they are rescued. It is too exhausting even
under normal conditions of wind and sea to attempt any
headway in such craft. Save your strength to keep afloat
and not to make good any distance.

85

SECTION VI
LIVING ABOARD LIFE CRAFT

46. GENERAL. Once you are safely aboard a life craft,
whether a ship's lifeboat or float, your chances of being
rescued are increased considerably. Remember that
rescue parties start out immediately the ship's sinking
is made known. Until rescued, make the most of living
with limited physical comforts and in crowded quarters.
Survival depends on everyone carrying out routine tasks
cheerfully and promptly; sharing hardships equally and
without complaint.

a. Command. Command aboard lifeboat is assigned
and takes precedence over rank. If boat commander
becomes a casualty or in the absence of an assigned com-
mander, the next senior officer or senior noncommis-
sioned officer aboard then assumes command.

b. Responsibilities of command. The responsibilities
of a boat commander are very great. He should ap-
point at least two others as his assistants. Almost every-
thing depends on the bearing and conduct of the men
in charge. They must be able to assume responsibility,
enforce strict discipline, assign jobs, deal with emer-
gencies, and take charge of rations, navigation, and boat
work. Some of the specific duties of this command
are to—

(1) Place a man in charge of all arms and ammuni-
tion as a precaution against insanity or mutiny.

(2) Place a man in charge of all water and provisions

86

as a precaution against contamination, spoiling, and
pilferage.

(3) Assign tasks to all men except those severely ex-
hausted or seriously wounded.

(4) Arrange living and sleeping accommodations.

(5) Divide all equipment, whether general or per-
sonal, to obtain an equal share of comfort.

(6) Ration water and food.

(7) Arrange suitable diet for each person per day-
depending on the provisions aboard.

(8) Schedule the number of meals and time for each.

(9) Examine all equipment aboard for serviceability;
supervise repairs.

(10) Set a definite course and maintain it.

(11) Take charge of first-aid equipment and super-
vise administration of first aid.

(12) Maintain morale and faith; schedule and con-
duct or supervise regular periods of worship if circum-
stances permit.

47. CARE OF EQUIPMENT, a. Boat's equipment Lash
down- everything aboard. Nothing should be discarded
unless sure it will be of no further use. Try to keep all
equipment as dry as conditions permit. Every effort
should be made to dry the boat and keep her so.

b. Clothing. As soon as possible, squeeze out all your
wet clothing but do not take off all your clothes unless
the weather is warm and dry, with a moderate wind.
Undress and dry clothes layer by layer.

48. WATER, a. General. Water is the most important
item for survival. Man can exist only about 7 days
without water. Loss of body moisture is hastened by
heat and exercise. Do not drink salt water as it will
cause diarrhea, weakness, and unbearable thirst. De-
lirious men may have to be forcibly restrained from
drinking salt water. Never drink urine; never forget
this. If water is not available do not eat. Elimination
of food wastes absorbs water from the kidneys and de-
creases water in the body.

87

b. Sources. (1) Boat's supply. This is the primary
source of drinking water. (See par. 22m.) To keep
water from freezing in breaker, remove the plug. Insert
a stick in the breaker. The lower end of stick should be
weighted and upper end should protrude a foot or more.
Movement of boat will keep the stick in motion so ice
will not be able to form.

(2) Canteens. All canteens are commandeered by the
boat's commander and the water in them made a part of
the boat's supply.

(3) Rain water. Use cups, tin cans, sea anchor, boat
cover, sails, strips of clean clothing, and all canvas gear
in the boat to collect rain water. Be sure this equip-
ment is free of salt; wash it off with the first fall of rain.

(4) Ice. In the cold regions icebergs are a source of
fresh water. In freezing weather, fresh water can be
obtained from sea water. Collect some sea water in a
container. The fresh water will freeze first. The salt
will collect in high concentration as slush in the core of
the frozen piece. Remove the ice and throw away the
slush. The melting ice will produce water sufficiently
free of salt to sustain life. "Old" ice also is a source of
fresh water. It has rounded corners due to rains and
thaws, is bluish in color, has a glare, and splinters easily
with a knife.

(5) Chemical kits. Chemical kits may be provided in
boats or rafts to remove the salt and alkaline from salt
water.

(6) Coral-reef water. On coral reefs brackish water
suitable for drinking can be found by digging a 6-inch
hole, 6 to 8 inches deep. Surface water will collect after
a short time. Do not dig deeper because you will pene-
trate the layer of fresh water and reach salt.

c. Storage. Water is stored in every container that
might be utilized for this purpose. It also may be stored
in carbon dioxide life jackets and in the lifeboat's air
tanks.

d. Issue. (1) An inventory is taken of all water
aboard. Plan the issue of water with regard to all -cir-
cumstances present: total supply of water, number of

88

men in lifeboat, time likely to be adrift, chances of re-
plenishing supply, and the extra water needed for the
sick and wounded.

(2) The average ration is 18 ounces— 3 cups. A gallon
contains 128 ounces. To compute the number of days
the water will last, divide the total ounces of water by
18 and divide this by number of men in the boat. For
example:

Amount (quarts) of water (par. 22m equals 15
times passenger capacity of boat (marked on
sides); 15 passengers for example; 14 passengers
actually present.

15 X 15 = 225 quarts

225 -f- 4 — 56 gallons

56 gallons X 128 ounces = 7,168 ounces

7,168 ounces 18 ounces (ration) = 398 rations

398 rations ~ 14 men = 28 days

(3) Control of issue starts immediately and continues
until survivors are rescued.

49. FOOD. a. General. A responsible person must be
put in charge of all food supplies. He must divide all
food fairly and schedule the meals. A complete inven-
tory of provisions must be taken before any food is dis-
tributed. On dry days the food should be checked to see
what is on hand and if anything has spoiled. Special
food should be kept to bolster morale in gloomy periods.
In one lifeboat from the Robin Moor, biscuit crumbs,
moistened with cold water, seasoned with sea water and
mixed with canned tomatoes provided a feast which
raised morale considerably.

b. Sources. (1) Boat's supply. This is the principal
source of food supply. Refer to paragraph 22ae for the
provisions allotted to lifeboats and rafts.

(2) Fishing. Fish can be caught with the equipment
in the fishing kit or with improvised gear. (See par.

50. )

(3) Birds. All birds are good to eat, cooked or raw.
Their blood and livers are also edible. Catch every

89

bird you can. Use the feathers to make fishing jigs or
stuff them under your clothing for warmth.

(4) Seaweed. Certain kinds of seaweed may be eaten
but not unless you have plenty of water. Chew it well.
Seaweed often holds small fish which can be eaten. Lift
it out of water slowly and shake it inside of boat. Dis-
card jelly fish, which are poisonous, and crabs, which
are too salty.

c. Issue. Control of issue starts immediately and
continues until survivors are rescued.

(1) Ration calculations. To calculate rations, first
estimate the number of days .before rescue is expected.
By dividing this number into the amount of each item
of food, the daily ration of each is found. In a boat
loaded to capacity there are 56 ounces of food, or about
8,000 calories, for each man. Provisions weigh as fol-
lows:

1 biscuit equals ounce; total 56 biscuits.
19 malted-milk tablets equal 1 ounce; total 226
tablets. (Suck tablets slowly; do not chew
them.)

can °f pemmican equals 1 ounce; total 4 cans.
(Pemmican is concentrated meat; eat pem-
mican and biscuits together.)

Example: If rescue is expected within 10 days, the
ration for 1 day will be:

5 biscuits.
22 malted-milk tablets.
2/5 of a can of pemmican.

This equals about 5.6 ounces per day, giving a diet of
about 800 calories, sufficient to sustain life.

(2) Eating rations. Eat slowly and chew thoroughly.
Emergency rations should be taken several times a day
in small portions.

50. FISHING, a. Practically all freshly caught sea fish
are palatable and wholesome, cooked or raw. In warm
regions fish should be bled and, gutted immediately after
catching. Fish not eaten immediately should be cut in

90

thin narrow strips and hung to dry in the air and sun.
Fish not cleaned and dried may spoil in half a day.
Never eat a fish that has pale slimy gills, sunken eyes,
flabby skin and flesh, an unpleasant odor, or whose flesh
remains indented when pressed by the thumb. Good
fish should have pink or red gills, bright clear eyes, firm
flesh, and be free from stringy slime. Sea fish should also
have a saltwater tang or clean fishy odor.

b. Poisonous fish are sometimes found in the tropics.
The bodies of these fish are covered with rough or spiny
scales, with thornlike spines, or with bony plates. In
one poisonous variety the skin is naked or is strewn with
soft spines or bristles which look like hair. None have
the ordinary scales found on bass, trout, snappers,
groupers, and goldfish. Follow this rule: If it does not
look like an ordinary fish, if it has unusual appendages,
if its mouth looks unusual or lacks teeth, if it is not cov-
ered with ordinary fish scales, let it alone. Remember
that fresh, nonpoisonous, salt-water fish can be eaten
raw; fresh-water fish cannot.

c. Fish are attracted by light and may jump into the
boat toward a flashlight or the reflection of the moon on
a white object hung in the boat.

d. The whole meat, blood, and juice of a turtle are
edible. Hot sun brings out of turtle fat a clear oil into
which food may be dipped. Turtles can be snagged with
a hook or turned on their backs and towed in. How-
ever,, even after a turtle's head has been cut off, the
mouth may bite and the claws may scratch.

e. Eels are fish and good to eat but do not confuse
them with sea snakes. Unlike eels, sea snakes, found in
the Pacific and Indian oceans, have scales and swim on
the surface of the water.

51. SLEEP, a. While it is possible to do without sleep
for long periods, it is far better to get regular sleep. If
you feel cold, crowd together under a canvas cover for-
ward or in a sail cloth or blanket. In calm weather
make more room in the boat by lashing oars and spare
gear outboard along the gunwale.

91

b. It may be dangerous to drop off to sleep in a Carley
float because risk of drowning is thereby increased. Stay
awake as long as possible in extremely cold weather.

52. CONSERVATION OF STRENGTH, a. Every mem-
ber of the lifeboat's company possesses a store of energy
which, if used, is not likely to be replaced by the rations
provided in the boat. Do not waste this strength by
useless exertion or by the development of a bad frame
of mind.

b. Some suggestions for the conservation of strength
follow:

(1) Do not exhaust yourself by getting excited.

(2) Do not sing or shout.

(3) Take mild exercise such as a short turn at the
oars to prevent body from kinking up.

(4) In hot weather, work on the boat should be done
before the sun is up.

(5) It is never justifiable to attempt to make progress
by continuous pulling at the oars. Periods of 15 minutes
at the oars with 1 hour rest will permit steady progress
for long periods with minimum exhaustion.

53. CARE OF SICK AND WOUNDED, a. Special care
should be given to the sick and wounded. Lash weak
or badly injured men to the boat to prevent their roll-
ing about in the boat. If a flat surface is needed for
wounded men, several oars can be laid side by side in
the boat or across the gunwales. Life preservers make
a satisfactory bed. Post a man to prevent the sick from
attempting to go over the side; they sometimes imagine
they are back home or in the ship. Humor them at all
times.

b. In case of death, the victim's clothing and equip-
ment should be removed before burying the body at sea.

54. PROTECTION AGAINST WEATHER, a. Protection
against cold winds, rain, and spray. If canvas hood and
side spray curtains are available, put them up as soon as
possible. (See pars. 22f and 69b.) In freezing weather a
blanket dipped in water and allowed to freeze will pro-

92

vide shelter against spray and wind. Sometimes these
measures will not give sufficient protection and you will
have to share blankets and huddle together to keep
warm. In wet weather, keep waterproof clothing on
even if clothes underneath are wet.

b. Protection against sun and heat. Rig up an awn-
ing if possible and try to provide some cover for the man
at the tiller. Do not take off too many clothes; they will
protect your skin against sunburn. This also applies to
legs and feet, which should be covered or in the shade.
Even in cloudy weather you can get badly sunburned.
Protect eyes from glare of sun by improvising some kind
of eyeshade. Tie a cloth or bandage over nose; this will
cut off glare from the water when you are looking
straight ahead.

55. NAVIGATION, a. General. Before the ship is aban-
doned, its location and the direction and distance to
land are given to all men aboard. Lifeboats contain
simple navigation charts and a compass. Try to reach a
sea or air route where there is greater chance of being
rescued. If the sea and air routes are not known, it is
best to set a course east or west. Keeping on the move
helps maintain morale. If a compass is not available,
determine direction from the sun and stars.

b. Determination of direction by using watch and sun.
When the sun is visible, a watch can be used to deter-
mine true south or north with an error of less than 8°.
This method is difficult when the sun is high and is of
little or no use in the tropics; furthermore, the watch
must be on standard time. If it is subject to corrections
for war time, daylight saving time, or zone time, it must
be set back accordingly.

(1) In the northern hemisphere, turn the watch face
up, and point the hour hand at the sun. To aid in cor-
rect pointing, hold vertically a pencil or other straight,
slender stick so that it casts a shadow across the face of
the watch. Rotate the watch to bring the hour hand
into this shadow. Draw a line from the center of the
watch dial through the midpoint of the smaller arc be-

33

tween the hour hand and 12 o'clock on the watch face"
This line points toward true south. (See fig. 49.)

94

(2) In the southern hemisphere, point toward the sun
the 12 o'clock mark on the watch. North lies halfway
between this mark and the hour hand. (See fig. 49.)

BIG DIPPER (URSA MAJOR)

POINTERS

\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\

NORTH STAR \# NORTH POLE

(POLARIS) ^.'fc

★

W (CASSIOPEIA)

Figure 50. Relation of Big Dipper and W to North Star.

95

c. Determination of direction by stars. (1) Northern
hemisphere. In the northern hemisphere, the North
Star, Polaris, is the best star for finding direction. This
star is almost vertically above the North Pole and any
sight on it is within 1 ° of true north. The following are
methods of identifying Polaris:

(a) By means of the Big Dipper. The Big Dipper is
a star group easily recognized by its shape. (See fig. 50.)
The two stars forming the side opposite the handle are
called pointers, because a line through them always
points to the North Star. From the lip of the Big Dip-
per to the North Star is about 5 times the distance be-
tween the pointers. Anyone having difficulty in locat-
ing the North Star can do so by using the fingers. (See
fig. 51.) Hold one finger in front of the eye, and adjust
its distance from the eye until one pointer is at each side
of the finger. Add five more fingers. The North Star
;hen is just outside the last added finger and on a line
with the pointers. Once identified it is easily recognized
by its brightness in comparison with the other stars
nearby.

Figure 51. Using the Big Dipper and fingers to locate North Star.

96

(b) By means of Cassiopeia (W). When the Big
Dipper is not visible, another star group may be used to
identify the North Star. On the opposite side of the
North Star, and at about the same distance from it as
the Big Dipper, is a group of five stars, called Cassiopeia,
which forms the letter W, or M if the group is above the
North Star. The relation between the North Star and
the W is shown in figure 52. This should be memorized.

(2) Behavior of stars. At the North Pole, the North
Star appears directly overhead, and both the Big Dipper
and W are visible and seem to rotate around the North
Star. To one going south from the North Pole toward
the Equator, these stars appear to lose elevation; they
are seen nearer the horizon. The 40th parallel of north
latitude, which passes through Pennsylvania, Spain,
Greece, and Japan, is the most southerly point from
which both the Big Dipper and W are always visible.
South- of this parallel only one of these star groups is
visible at a time; so half the time it is identified by the
Big Dipper. (See fig. 52.) And half the time by W.
(See fig. 52.)

(3) Southern Hemisphere. There is a faint star called
Sigma Octantis above the South Pole and 1° from it.
However since it is sometimes difficult to recognize and
use this star, the Southern Cross is usually used to deter-
mine direction. Four bright stars form the cross. It is.
identified by its shape and relative brilliance, and by the
two bright pointer stars shown in figure 53. The South-
ern Cross appears to rotate about the South Pole just as
the Big Dipper seems to rotate about the North Pole,
but in the opposite direction. The groups are about
the same distance from their respective poles. To locate
the South Pole, consider the Southern Cross a kite. Ex-
tend its long axis A.y 2 times in the direction of the tail.
(See fig. 53.) The point in the sky thus fixed is approxi-
mately over the South Pole. Use this point for true
south direction. Under favorable light conditions the
South Pole star may be identified and used. From the
vicinity of the Equator, both the Southern Cross and
the Big Dipper are sometimes visible, sometimes only

97

one of them. When both are visible, they are about
equally high above the horizon, but in opposite parts of

Figure 52. View of North Star, Big Dipper, and W from Equator.

98

[2]

Figure 53. Relation of Southern Cross, "pointer stars," and celestial
South Pole.

99

the sky. As one moves south from the Equator the
Southern Cross becomes visible for a greater part of the
night. South of the 33d parallel of south latitude, which
runs through Uruguay, Cape of Good Hope, and South-
ern Australia, the Cross is visible all night. For night
observation south of the Equator, where the South Pole
star cannot be identified and the Southern Cross is not
continuously visible, the following procedure may be
used. Determine direction at sunset just before the
Southern Cross disappears by methods already described.
Then select a star in the vicinity of the South Pole,
preferably one just rising, and memorize the appearance
and position of this star. Use it to maintain direction
for the remainder of the night.

d. By rising and setting of sun. Observe the times
of rise and set of sun on the same day, or the time it sets
one day and the time it rises the following morning.
Divide by 2 the time elapsed between rising and setting.
In the northern hemisphere the answer, added to the
time of the sun's rise, will give the hour when the sun is
true south.

Example: Sunrise 0600
Sunset 1900

1900- 0600 = 0630

0600 + 0630 = 1230, time sun is at true
south.

The same procedure applies for the southern hemi-
sphere, except that the direction to the sun is true north.

56. PHYSICAL INDICATIONS OF LAND. a. General.

The following paragraphs describe certain signs that
will aid the alert helmsman in steering toward land.
These signs will not of themselves be positive evidence
of the proximity of land; yet, correlated with other
observations, they will strengthen the probability of
finding land nearby.

b. Clouds. Clouds and certain distinctive reflections
in the sky are the most reliable indications of land.

100

(1) Small clouds hover over and a little to lee side
of atolls. Color of lagoon is sometimes reflected from
the clouds and indicates an atoll beyond the horizon.

(2) Small clouds may also hover over coral patches
and hidden reefs thus acting as warnings of shoals.

(3) Fixed clouds or cloud crests often appear around
the summits of hilly islands or coastal land. Fixed
clouds are easily recognized by moving clouds passing
by them.

(4) Lights from cities are usually reflected in the sky,
especially by high clouds.

(5) In tropical regions, lightning from one particular
direction in early hours of morning is usually a sign of
mountainous land.

(6) In polar regions, a sharply defined patch of bright-
ness in otherwise gray sky is a sign of areas of floe or
shore ice in the midst of open water.

c. Sounds. Sound from land is affected by the
strength and direction of the wind. This fact must be
applied to any sound from land to be useful to the
navigator. By shutting the eyes and turning the head
to get equal volume of sound in each ear, it is possible
to obtain close approximation of bearing of the sound.

(1) Continued cries of sea birds from one particular
direction signify roosting place on land.

(2) In fog, if ship's whistle or siren is heard, vessel is
moving; but if bell is heard at regular intervals, the
sound is coming from a ship at anchor or from a bell
buoy.

d. Birds and insects. An increase in the number of
birds and insects indicates land nearby.

e. Odors. Land odors are carried out to sea by the
wind. Detection of such odors in fog, mist, rain, or at
night is very important as you may be drifting past a
nearby shore without seeing it.

57. WATCH. Maintain a continuous watch aboard
lifeboat, raft, or float. This duty is similar to sentry
duty. The man on watch (sentry) looks for rescue
parties, steers the boat to prevent its capsizing, main-

101

tains designated course or changes it as necessary, and
informs the boat commander of all that has occurred
during that watch.. This duty is rotated and should be
shortened as necessary when the boat's company becomes
exhausted.

58. ATTRACTING ATTENTION. Do not waste signal-
ing equipment on the chance someone may see your
signal. A real chance of being rescued may be lost a
lew hours later. Refer to paragraphs 22 and 23 for de-
scription of signal equipment aboard lifeboats or rafts.
In the absence of such equipment, make yourself con-
spicuous by churning up the sea with oars or paddles.
If an airplane is heard in the vicinity, wait until it is
heading in your direction and fairly close to you before
firing a signal. Remember, you can hear an airplane
long before you can see it or the airplane's crew can
see you. Be prepared to fire a second signal to confirm
the first. Be sure you, are signaling a friend, not an
enemy.

59. RESCUE AT SEA. a. Rescue at sea is the transfer
of survivors from one craft to another; it is nothing short
of that. Failure to recognize this will result in addi-
tional hazards to the survivors.

b. Order must be maintained and navigation on a
chosen course must continue without interruption even
if land or rescue parties are sighted. Though land is
sighted a boat may drift away before she can be beached;
rescue parties which you see may not see you, may turn
out to be other survivors unable to help you, or may be
enemy craft. Remember the following points:

(1) Don't change your course to reach a sightecL craft .
If it is a friendly rescue party it will make for your craft
and probably be in far better circumstances to do so.

(2) Don't drink up all the water and eat all the food
even if it appears that rescue is possible.

(3) Don't consider yourself rescued until you are ac-
tually aboard the other craft or are placed under the
orders of her commander.

102

SECTION VII
FIRST AID AT SEA

60. FIRST AID. a. This text covers only the first aid
generally necessary after disasters at sea. The discussion
of cases and their treatment is intended for survivors
of a shipwreck who must attempt to give medical care
to a fellow survivor in the cramped exposed quarters
of a lifeboat with the emergency first-aid equipment
usually available. To use the following information
to the best advantage, you must know the general prin-
ciples of first aid and their application as covered in
FM 21-11. Also refer to paragraphs 21 and 22n.

b. In so far as practicable, the various cases will be
discussed separately as follows:

(1) Cause.

(2) Prevention.

(3) Symptoms.

(4) Treatment.

With all cases, remember to use common sense; no two
cases are alike; people react differently under hardships.

61. IMMEDIATE ACTION. Aid the survivor from the
water and place him in reclining position with his head
low and his feet raised. Examine him for injuries,
swelling, immersion foot, burns, frostbite, numbness,
paralysis, shock, and any internal pain or tenderness.
Handle him gently. Keep him warm but do not apply
heat directly to his body. After making him as com-
fortable as possible, and if his condition permits, ask

103

him questions as to the period of exposure, underwater
explosions, general conditions during exposure, the
amount of sea water drunk, if any, and the amount of
food and fresh water he has had. From this informa-
tion, apply first aid as prescribed in the following
paragraphs:

62. ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION, a. General Aid to

breathing may be necessary with patients who have been
under water, received concussion shock, or been over-
come by smoke or oil fumes.

b. Procedure. (1) Lay the victim on his stomach,
one arm extended overhead, and the other arm folded
under the head. Turn the face toward the extended
arm. Wipe water and mucous and loose objects out of
the mouth and pull the tongue forward.

(2) Extend and spread the legs. Kneel . astride the
thigh on the side to which the head is facing to be able
to observe the face. Your knees must be far enough
away from the victim's hips so that pressure can be ap-
plied to his lower ribs. With your arms straight place
the palms of your hands on the patient's lower ribs so
that the little fingers just touch his lowest rib, the
thumbs and fingers are in their natural position, and
the tips of the fingers are out of sight just around the
sides of his chest. The heels of the hands should be
placed as far as possible from his backbone without
slipping off. (See fig. 54[ 1 ] .)

(3) (a) With arms held straight, swing forward slowly
so that the weight of the body is gradually brought to
bear upon the drowned person (fig. 54 [2].) This proce-
dure should take long enough for the count of "one
thousand one, one thousand two, one thousand three."
Do not bend the elbows while giving artificial respira-
tion.

(b) Now swing backwards so as to remove all pres-
sure completely and suddenly for the count of "one
thousand one, one thousand two." Leave the hands in
place if possible.

(c) Repeat.

104

[1]

[2]

Figure 54. Schaefer method of artificial respiration.

105

63. SHOCK, a. Cause. In every severe injury the
body suffers from a certain amount of shock. This often
is more serious than the wound itself and may cause
death.

b. Symptoms. Symptoms of shock are pallor, rapid
and weak pulse, and nausea. Breathing is irregular and
similar to sighing. The body may be cold and clammy
and chills may be present. The eyes may be glassy and
have a fixed stare.

c. Treatment. (1) Keep the patient in a horizontal
position with feet elevated and head low except when
there is an injury to the head. With a head injury the
head must be elevated.

(2) Keep warm with sailcloth, blankets, or other
means.

(3) Administer stimulants— ammonia inhalant from
first-aid kit.

(4) . Relieve pain. Give morphine from abandon-ship
kit. Dosage: one syrette immediately. May be repeated
after 3 hours, if needed.

64. BLAST CONCUSSION INJURY, a. Cause. Blast
concussion injury is often incurred by swimmers in an
area where depth charges, torpedoes, or aerial bombs are
exploding. The blast, transmitted through the water, is
likely to cause injuries to the lungs, stomach, or intes-
tines.

b. Prevention. If expecting blasts described above,
float on the back, cross the legs, tense the body, tighten
the anus, and keep as near the surface of the water as
possible. Get out of the danger area and out of the
water as soon as possible.

c. Symptoms. If lungs are injured, breathing will
be difficult. The patient may spit or cough up frothy
blood and may feel abdominal pain. The stomach may
be swollen or rigid. Shock may be present.

d. Treatment. Lay the victim down with his head
low. Keep him warm. Give morphine to ease the pain.
Give fresh water in small doses.

106

65. EYE INFLAMMATION, a. Cause. Shipwreck vic-
tims are often covered with a heavy coating of dirty oil.
The chief danger is eye inflammation. Wind and sun
glare will also cause eye inflammation.

b. Prevention. Keep eyes covered with a cool, damp
cloth during the day or improvise an eyeshade. Keep
eyes closed or above water when swimming in oil-cov-
ered water.

c. Symptoms. Eyes look oil- stained and dirty. They
are red, bloodshot, overflowing with tears, and some-
times painful; often there is a sticky crust on the lids.
Looking at a light causes pain.

d. Treatment Cleanse with eye dressing from first-
aid kit or drop mineral oil into the eyes. To relieve
pain cold compresses can be placed over the eyes 10
minutes out of every hour if there are no ulcers in the
eyes.

66. BLEEDING. Bleeding must be controlled at once.
Application of a pressure bandage will be all that is
necessary in the majority of cases. If bleeding persists or
the bleeding is from a large artery in the arm or leg, a
tourniquet must be applied. The tourniquet can be
made from strips of cloth torn from shirts or trousers,
handkerchiefs, belts, or other similar material. THE
TOURNIQUET MUST BE LOOSENED FOR A FEW
SECONDS EVERY 20 MINUTES.

67. WOUNDS, a. General. Stop bleeding by a com-
press bandage applied to the wound or by application
of a tourniquet when necessary. Cover the wound with
a sterile dressing and treat for shock.

b. Chest wounds. Any wound which penetrates the
chest and allows air to enter it may cause collapse of a
lung and possible death. To prevent this, immediately
apply a dressing to the wound and make airtight by ap-
plying folded pieces of relatively impervious material
such as sailcloth or raincoat.

68. FRACTURES OF ARM OR LEG. In case of fracture
only, the broken limb can be fixed in position by splints.

107

If the broken bone has penetrated the skin do not try to
push the bone into place. Cut the clothing away from
the fracture site, apply bandage, then splint the limb.
Handle the limb gently. Maintain a slow steady pull on
the limb as the splints are being applied.

69. FROSTBITE AND FREEZING, a. Cause. Insufficient
shelter from the wind or water or prolonged exposure to
cold may cause frostbite. Frostbite is the freezing of
single parts of the body, most often the nose, ears,
cheeks, fingers, and toes. If tight clothing reduces the
circulation, the extremities may freeze.

b. Prevention. Rig up all available shelter from the
wind and water. In temperatures below freezing, wet
blankets can be frozen and used as protection. If pos-
sible dry the clothes. Stimulate circulation by move-
ment and exercise. Stay out of the water. Keep low in
the boat and out of the wind. Keep huddled together.
Do not expose the extremities to the wind. Storm oil
may be used to coat the body to protect against the wind.

c. Treatment If breathing has ceased give artificial
respiration. In cases of frostbite do not rub the frozen
parts. Thaw frozen parts by applying cool wet cloths
at first and increase the temperature of compresses grad-
ually until the skin color is normal. Blisters that appear
should be kept clean.

70. IMMERSION FOOT. a. Cause. Immersion of the
feet in uncomfortably cold water for several hours or
more causes immersion foot. It may be made worse by
keeping knees bent to conform with the cramped quar-
ters in the boat.

b. Prevention. Keep feet dry and warm. Remove
tight shoes. Straighten out the legs and elevate the feet.
Grease the feet and wrap them loosely ,in cloth to protect
against cold and moisture. Storm oil may be used to oil
the feet.

c. Symptoms. The first thing noticed is pain in the
feet, followed by swelling of the feet and legs. The skin
becomes discolored and blood or water blisters or ulcers

108

may develop. The feet feel numb and may oeconie
paralyzed.

d. Treatment Do not apply heat, avoid rubbing, and
never allow any weight to rest on feet or legs. Raise the
legs and feet above the level of the body being careful
not to damage the skin. Keep the rest of the body
warm. Apply cold to the feet and legs but do not let
the skin get wet. Either a cold compress separated from
the skin by a layer of waterproof material or cold, dry
air blown over the skin is effective. Sulfanilamide can
be dusted into any ulcers, cuts, or sores on the limbs.
Continue treatment and rest until swelling and pain dis-
appear.

71. BURNS AND SUNBURN, a. Cause. Burns may be
caused by swimming in burning oil, by an explosion, or
by exposure to the sun.

b. Prevention. Keep the body completely covered even
in cloudy weather.

C. Symptoms. The skin is highly red in color, irri-
tated and usually blistered. A burning sensation is felt.
The skin is sensitive to the touch. Fever. Shock.

d. Treatment Cover burned area with tannic-acid
jelly from first-aid kit. Dab, do not rub. Treat for
shock. For fever make patient rest and give him cold
fluids to drink, preferably water.

72. HEATSTROKE (SUNSTROKE), a. Cause. Heat-
stroke results from exposure to heat and sun.

b. Prevention. Retain all clothing and headgear. Rig
up awnings from sail, canvas cover, or other material.
Take an occasional short swim.

c. Symptoms. Symptoms are dizziness, nausea, vomit-
ing, diarrhea, fever, headache, mental confusion, and un-
consciousness.

d. Treatment Loosen all clothing. Bathe the head,
face, wrists and body in cool sea water. Give small sips
of fresh water. Place the patient in a reclining position
protected from the sun. Fan and keep cool. Apply cold
water to head and extremities.

103

73. DEHYDRATION AND THIRST, a. Cause. The

body loses water by breathing, evaporation from the skin,
and internally through the kidneys.

b. Prevention. Refer to paragraph 48 on water.

c. Symptoms. Symptoms are loss of weight, rapid
pulse, fever convulsions, shock, and inability to urinate.
Dryness causes cracks and sores on lips.

d. Treatment. Give small amounts of sweetened water
if the individual is conscious. Treat for shock.

74. STARVATION, a. General. Most survivors after
long exposure suffer from starvation.

b. Prevention. Refer to paragraph 49 on food.

c. Symptoms. Symptoms are loss of weight, fever, and
shock. Breathing may be shallow and fast. Prolonged
malnutrition may cause swelling of the feet— not to be,
be confused with immersion foot.

d. Treatment. Give small amounts of soft and liquid
foods. Rest. Keep warm. Treat for shock.

75. CONSTIPATION. With such little food and water
you will have few or no bowel movements. Do not worry
about it. Constipation in itself is not harmful in this
case. No first-aid treatment is necessary. Do not take
laxatives. Laxatives only absorb water from the body
and increase the process of dehydration (drying up) of
the body.

76. FAINTING OR UNCONSCIOUSNESS FROM ANY
CAUSE, a. Lay the patient flat on stomach, head turned
to one side.

b. Loosen clothing.

c. If he is breathing, use ammonia inhalant.

d. If he is not breathing, use artificial respiration. Use
inhalant as soon as breathing starts.

77. MENTAL DISTURBANCES, a. Cause. Usually men-
tal disturbances are caused by severe hardships, pro-
longed exposure, thirst, starvation, or drinking sea water;

no

but sometimes they develop when rescue seems probable
and the victim becomes overexcited and happy.

b. Symptoms. Symptoms are irrational thinking, mel-
ancholy, a fixed stare, delirium, and convulsions.

c. Treatment. Give victim rest, warmth, and quiet.
Prevent the man from injuring himself or leaving the
boat. Lash him to the boat if necessary.

Ill

SECTION VIII
PROTECTION AGAINST WATER ANIMALS

78. GENERAL. Some water animals attack man only in
self-defense; others may attack if attracted by blood,
shiny objects, and light colors such as that of a man's
skin. Don't drag your hands or feet overboard. The
best defense against water animals is to look for them
and detour around them. Observe underwater, on the
bottom of shoals, among rocks, and at the surface. Swim
slowly and quietly. Keep your clothing on if dangerous
fish are known to infest the water. Move away from any
blood in the water. It is important to remain calm,
especially when stung by water animals; their stings
will wear away.

79. SHARK (fig. 55). a. Sharks are distributed widely
but are most common in warm seas. They have long,
round, slender bodies with the upper lobe of the tail fin
longest, and with five distinct openings to the gills along
the side of the head. The most dagerous sharks have
unsymmetrical tails. The body normally measures not
more than 1 1 feet. The mouth is large and armed with
cutting teeth; the nose usually is conical, bluntly pointed,
and protrudes well, in front of the mouth. Sharks usu-
ally attack on the surface and are revealed by their fins,
which break the water like a periscope.

b. Defense against a shark attack consists in splashing,
moving the arms and legs rapidly, and making a great
deal of commotion underwater. Metallic noises such as

112

striking a canteen under water are best. Avoid display
of skin, underclothing, or shiny objects. The snout is

Figure 55. White shark— "man-eater."

the most sensitive part of the shark's body; by striking
a blow on the snout you may drive him away. Treat in
the ordinary manner any wounds received.

113

Figure 56. Barracuda.

80. BARRACUDA (fig. 56). The barracuda is found only
in the warm seas. It is a long, grayish, pikelike fish with
long, pointed jaws lined with sharp teeth. It is about
6 feet long and usually is attracted by anything that
moves but especially by light-colored or shiny objects. It
attacks quickly from below the surface. Creating noise
underwater may frighten it away. Treat in the ordinary
manner any wounds received.

81. STING RAY (fig. 57). a. Sting rays, found in all
warm seas and in some fresh water rivers, are disk-

114

Figure 57. Sting ray.

shaped, flattened fishes with one or two long, barbed
spines. The disk is made up of both body and fins.
Sizes range from that of an ordinary dinner plate up to
10 feet across. The tail may be as long or longer than
the disk. Since they conceal themselves in muddy or
sandy flats, they are frequently stepped upon and lash
out with their tails, driving the spine into the flesh and
injecting a highly venemous substance. Treat wounds
like snake bites.

b. When walking in turbid or muddy water, poke
ahead of you with a stick and slide your feet along. If
stick or feet touch a hidden sting ray it will swim away.

82. SAW-FISH. The saw-fish has a body similar to the
shark's and, in addition, a swordlike snout is armed with
spines on the sides giving the impression of a large
double-edged saw. ■ The saw-fish may reach a length of
from 10 to 20 feet but it is not vicious. It lives over
sandy and muddy bottoms. The saw-fish can swing its

115

saw back and forth with power enough to break a man's
leg. The most tender parts of the saw-fish are the areas
around the eyes and at the base of the saw. Defense con-
sists of striking area of eyes and avoiding the saw.

83. MORAY EEL (fig. 58). The moray eels are found
in all warm seas, especially in crevices about coral reefs.
Most morays are brownish or blackish colored with pecu-
liar patterns of varied spots. Some morays reach a length

1

*<- ■ " ~ "■: . . _ I

Figure .58. Moray eel.

of 6 feet. A knife or spear may be used in defense against
the moray. Keep your hands and bare feet out of rock
crevices. Treat in the ordinary manner any wounds
received.

118

84. SEA PORCUPINE (fig. 59). Found in warm seas,
the sea porcupine is recognized easily by its covering of
erectile spines. This fish swells itself up by swallowing
water or air. It is not ferocious. Its jaws are like the
beak of a parrot and powerful enough to bite off a finger
if they are molested. Defense consists of keeping out of
their way.

Figure 59. Sea porcupine.

85. SEA URCHIN (fig. 60). The sea urchin occurs abun-
dantly on rocks, reefs, and among coral and looks like a
pincushion full of long needles. Some sea urchins are
covered with numerous movable spines of two different
sizes. Sea urchins with short, stout spines are not poison-
ous. The shorter and finer spine is highly venemous; if
it touches the skin gently the poison is injected into' the
flesh causing sharp, severe pain. Remove the spine and
apply iodine. Be suspicious of anything that resembles
a sea urchin; don't handle it.

117

Figure 60. Sen urchin.

118

86. GIANT CLAM. Found on the coral reefs in the Pa-
cific and Indian Ocean, giant clams are similar to the
ordinary clam but of tremendous size, sometimes weigh-
ing more than 500 pounds. The clam is edible, but care
must be taken that no part o£ the body is trapped within
the shell, which clamps on to anything that enters it.

87. OCTOPUS (fig. 61). Commonly found in the Medi-
terranean and the Southwestern Pacific, the octopus has
a round body and eight arms or legs on each of which

Figure 61. Uctujjus.

are numerous suction cups. The octopus may grow to
over 10 feet from tip to tip of the tentacles. It has large
keen eyes which shine in the dark. When attacked it
emits an inky fluid into the water to screen its actions

119

Figure 62. Portuguese mini-of-war

while ascaping. The octopus is not a vicious animal and
when attacked will try to escape. They occur most fre-
quently along rocky shores and on reefs. Some kinds
live at considerable depths in the sea.

120

88. ELECTRIC RAY. In shape the electric ray is similar
to the sting ray except that its tail lacks the sting. On
being touched, the animal imparts a severe electric shock
from batteries located along its back. If shocked, re-
main calm and quiet and wait for the shock to wear off.

89. BLUEFISH. Bluefish are unusually active game fish
abundant in the Atlantic Ocean and English Channel.
They are generally 2 to 3 feet long and blue in color.
They have razor-sharp teeth and will attack any moving
object. Schools of bluefish are dangerous to a swimmer.
Treat inflicted wounds in the usual manner.

90. JELLYFISH. Found in all seas but more numerous in
the tropics, the jellyfish is an umbrella-shaped animal of
jellylike substance, with numerous tentacles hanging
down from the under side. Jellyfish vary from a few
inches to 2 or 3 feet across. Contact with a tentacle
causes severe stinging sensation. Application of slightly
diluted ammonia water gives immediate relief. If stung
while swimming remain calm and swim slowly until the
effects wear off. The jellyfish cannot follow you. Clothes
give full protection to all parts of body so covered.

91. PORTUGUESE MAN-OF-WAR (fig. 62). Commonly
found in most war seas, the brightly colored Portuguese
man-of-war has a large bladder-like body with long
tentacles hanging down from the under side. It usually
floats on the surface. It imparts a more severe sting than
a jellyfish, but the sting is treated in the same manner.
Watch for the floating bladder and keep away from it.

92. SEA SNAKE (fig. 63). Sea snakes can be distin-
guished from eels because they are covered with bony
plates or rectangular-shaped scales. They are found in
the warm waters of the Indian and Pacific Oceans and,
a fresh-water variety, in the Philippine Islands. The sea
snake is usually banded with bright colors. The tail is
flattened to form a paddle. Sea snakes rarely bite with-
out provocation but stay away from them. Their venom

121

Figure 63. Sea snake.

is poisonous; treat wound immediately. First apply a
tourniquet between the bite and the heart. Next with a '
knife make a criss cross out of each fang prick and suck
out the blood and poison by mouth and spit. Finally
apply iodine. If your mouth contains any open wounds
have someone else suck the poison.

93. CROCODILE AND ALLIGATOR. Crocodiles and al-
ligators are found in fresh water in Africa, Asia, Aus-
tralia, and America. However, the largest and most dan-
gerous crocodiles take to the open sea in the Indo-Aus-
tralian region. Crocodiles and alligators are long, thick-
skinned reptiles with a vicious, lashing tail and a long
snout with big teeth. Stay away from them.

122

SECTION IX

SAFETY MEASURES AND EMERGENCY
PROCEDURE IN LANDING CRAFT

94. GENERAL, a. The success of an amphibious opera-
tion, assaulting enemy-held beaches, depends chiefly on
two elements: surprise and physical fitness of troops.
Most landing operations are carried out during darkness
to maintain the element of surprise.

b. Counterintelligence, safety measures, and emer-
gency procedures will be a command decision but no
general rules can hold for every wave nor for H-l
minute. Use your common sense. If the operation
started in a calm sea on D day, by H-10 minutes the sea
may be 4 or 5 feet; common sense then should tell you
not to discard your life belt until absolutely sure you
will not need it. Under such circumstances even equip-
ment may have to be lightened to combat essentials.

cv An amphibious operation consists of three stages:

(1) Embarkation. Embarking into landing craft from
ship or shore.

(2) Crossing. Assembling the landing craft, proceed-
ing to the rendezvous area, and preparing to leave the
line of departure. -

(3) Attack. Crossing the line of departure, approach-
ing the enemy beach, landing, and debarkation.

Individual safety measures for each of the phases are
described in the following paragraphs.

123

Figure 64. Shorten belt by forming loop and snapping three
fasteners. Move loop to point opposite mouth-inflation tubes and
snap the tab fasteners.

124

95. SAFETY EQUIPMENT: CARBON-DIOXIDE LIFE
BELTS, a. General. Carbon-dioxide life belts are gen-
erally issued to amphibious assault troops. However,
other life preservers may be issued. This belt is a rub-
berized fabric life preserver inflated by two carbon-diox-
ide bulbs or by mouth. It is put on and worn like a
cartridge belt.

b. To prepare for wearing. (1) Close valve at end of
each mouth-inflation tube.

(2) Secure pleats in belt by snapping two fasteners
placed on opposite sides of belt about midway between
ends of mouth-inflation tubes.

(3) Shorten belt by forming loop and snapping three
fasteners. (See fig. 64.) Move loop to point opposite
mouth-inflation tubes and snap the tab fasteners.

(4) Unscrew caps of inflation mechanism and insert a
filled carbon-dioxide bulb into each compartment, with
slender portion of bulb pointing toward removable caps.
(See fig. 65.) Never reverse position of carbon-dioxide
bulbs.

(5) Replace caps and, using finger pressure only, screw
down tightly to prevent loss of gas when belt is inflated..

c. To put on belt. Grasp inflating mechanism with
right hand and put on like a cartridge belt. Hook ends
together with slotted tongue on inflating mechanism.
(See fig. 66.) Do not turn belt in against body. Acciden-
tal inflation in such a position makes it impossible to re-
move without injuring belt. It should fit comfortably
about waist. Hook may be adjusted by rotating it to
unclamp it, moving it to desired position and reclamp-
ing it. Small metal rings are set into belt for attaching
improvised rope suspenders, if desired. Suspenders are
not furnished with belt.

d. To inflate belt Grasp belt to right of inflating
mechanism as shown in figure 67. Close hand firmly and
quickly and then release it. This movement makes a
pair of levers press carbon-dioxide bulbs against firing
pins in removable caps. Diaphragms of bulbs are punc-
tured and carbon-dioxide is released, inflating belt. If
additional buoyancy is required in either or buoyancy

125

Figure 65. Insert carbon-dioxide bulbs with slender part pointing
toward removable caps. Never reverse this position.

126

127

Figure 67. To inflate belt squeeze it with a hard, quick grip at a
point marked by two arrows and immediately relax grip.

128

tubes, reach around with le£t hand, pull out desired
mouth-inflation tube, unscrew valve, and inflate by
mouth. (See fig. 68.) Valve must then be screwed tight
by hand. To deflate, unscrew caps of inflation mechan-
isms. The belt may be inflated solely by mouth. In this
case, all snap fasteners must first be disengaged by hand.

e. Use. The following general rules apply to the wear-
ing of the carbon-dioxide life belt unless otherwise di-
rected by command decision:

(1) When issued, the belt will be worn at all times
until the far shore has been reached.

(2) The life belt should be partially inflated by mouth
at all times.

(3) It will be worn under the personal equipment.
(See fig. 68.) The wearer may discard his equipment
without removing the belt when, for example, he finds
his equipment is too heavy for the belt to support in the
water.

(4) Except for jumping into burning oil, it should be
inflated before going overboard.

(5) Life belt normally should be worn high under the
armpits so if wearer is stunned or injured his head will
be kept above water.

96. WEARING OF INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT, a. Gen-
eral. Equipment must be worn loosely and with car-
tridge belt unfastened so it can be removed quickly and
easily. If the carbon-dioxide life belt is issued on the
ship, it is partially mouth-inflated before leaving the
ship and worn until the far shore is reached. If the life
jacket is issued on the ship, it too is worn until the far
shore is reached.

b. Equipment with infantry pack. Troops in the first
few waves usually carry the combat pack but may, under
some circumstances, be equipped with arms and ammu-
nition only. Succeeding waves carry full field packs.
(See fig. 69.) With full field packs, first the gas mask
is slung over the left shoulder. The gas mask waist belt
is not used; it is tucked into the gas-mask cover. The
pack is then slung in the usual manner. The cartridge

129

Figure 68. To inflate belt by mouth, pull out mouth-inflation tube,
unscrew valve, and force air into tube.

130

Figure 69. Method of wearing equipment with infantry pack for
quick removal (but not when in first few assault waves).

131

belt is not fastened. This allows the equipment to be
removed quickly in an emergency. The front belt sus-
pender on the left side is not attached to the cartridge
belt. It hangs loose. The rifle is slung over the left
shoulder, butt in front of the shoulder, muzzle down.
Slinging the rifle in this manner keeps it from fouling
the net while its wearer is climbing up or down. The
sling at the shoulder is hooked over the bayonet handle.
If the carbon-dioxide life belt has been issued, it is worn
under all individual equipment. If life jacket has been
issued, it must be put on before individual equipment is
slung over it.

c. Equipment with musette bag (fig. 70). The gas
mask is worn' in the prescribed manner except that the
shoulder strap is slung over the left shoulder— the waist
belt is used. The cartridge belt is fastened. The car-
bon-dioxide life belt is worn high up under the arm pits.
The rifle is slung loosely over the left shoulder, butt in
front of the shoulder, muzzle down. Left-handed men
can sling the rifle over the right shoulder. The sus-
penders are carried in the musette bag, which is slung
over the right shoulder by the single carrying strap.
Wearing the equipment in this manner makes it pos-
sible for the soldier to discard his equipment piece by
piece. For quick removal paraboots should be worn
with, only the three bottom holes laced and with the
loose lace wound around the boot and tied on the top
outside in a double bow knot. (See par. 15c.)

97. THE EMBARKATION, a. From ships. Most embark-
ations will be in total darkness. The time schedule of
this operation must be maintained rigidly; speed and
silence are essential.

(1) Nets are used for leaving ship. (See par. 17.) The
first men in the boat hold the net inside the boat to pre-
vent it from slamming against ship's side and to prevent
men falling between boat and ship. Once inside the
boat, don't point the muzzle of your rifle straight up; a
man falling on it will injure himself seriously.

(2) Crew-served weapons are lashed by two lines, a

132

Figure 70. Method of wearing equipment with musette bag for
quick removal.

133

lowering line and a guide line. The guide line is
dropped into the landing craft and is used to guide the
weapon away from the net as it is being lowered by the
lowering line. As soon as the weapon is aboard, both
Hues are detached and stowed out of the way of per-
sonnel.

b. From shore. Arrival of landing craft is synchron-
ized with arrival of troops and supplies. Loading of
landing craft cannot be. delayed one second. File into
your assigned boat quickly and quietly. Footing on
docks and aboard landing craft may be wet and slippery;
watch your step.

c. In the landing craft. Troops are arranged in land-
ing craft in a specified manner depending upon the com-
position of the team, the type of craft, and the mission
the boat team is to perform upon landing. As soon as
the soldier reaches his position in the landing craft, he
will make himself as comfortable as possible. Equip-
ment is never removed for more than the few minutes
required to unkink the muscles unless a longer period is
authorized by the boat-team commander. See that your
rifle and other equipment are protected from spray; be
sure crew-served weapons and supplies are stowed prop-
erly against the pitching and tossing of the landing craft.
Smoking is strictly prohibited.

98. THE CROSSING, a. Assembly area. The first stage
of the crossing is the assembling of loaded landing craft
into formations which can be controlled during the
crossing.

b. Passage to rendezvous area. This phase of the
crossing may require travel over a long distance. Re-
member, attack during an amphibious operation is al-
ways imminent. Be alert. Make yourself as comfortable
as conditions permit; stretch frequently, exercise if pos-
sible. Take every precaution to maintain your fighting
efficiency.

c. Rendezvous area. Within the rendezvous area
final preparations and check-ups are made on .the readi-
ness of troops, equipment, and wave formations for the

134

final run to the enemy beaches from the line of depar-
ture. Remember, the line of departure is the enemy-side
limit of the rendezvous area and may be located within
range of shore artillery. Silence and secrecy are impera-
tive. Pay strict attention to the final orders of the boat-
team commander.

99. THE ATTACK, a. Crossing line of departure. Land-
ing craft cross the line of departure in attack formations.
Waves are spaced in time intervals and that schedule
cannot be changed once the wave has crossed the line of
departure. Troops crouch low in the boats for protec-
tion. Life jackets are removed (par. 94b) unless the car-
bon-dioxide belt is being worn. Fix bayonets and check
and adjust equipment for combat.

b. Approaching the enemy beach. The boat-team
commander will warn troops when boat is within effec-
tive range of enemy small-arms fire from shore. Enemy
attach during this phase is most imminent.

(1) If strafed or bombed by hostile aircraft or fired at
by enemy artillery during the approach to the beach, ail
men must crouch down in the boat behind its armored
sides. Gun crews man the machine guns in the boat
and return the aircraft fire.

(2) If the boat is disabled, all men remain in it and
the coxswain raises a signal flag to notify the following
waves. If forced to abandon the landing craft while still
in deep water, all men must immediately discard their
equipment and put on life preservers. Floorboards or
other removable buoyant articles can also be used to
keep afloat until picked up. Go overboard to windward.
Once in the water, keep out of the way of oncoming
boats; there is little chance they can see you.

(3) Protection against strafing is provided by ducking
under the surface of the water. Airplanes are so fast and
their angle of fire so low that protection is provided by
merely bobbing (fig. 1) under the water to a minimum of
24 inches and returning to the surface. Remove life
preserver and hang on to the straps while bobbing.
Protection against bombing and blast concussion injury

135

is provided as described in paragraph 64. The best pro-
tection is gained by getting out of the water onto a float-
ing object.

c. Landing. (1) When the landing craft reaches a
point 15 to 20 yards off the beach, the boat-team com-
mander warns his men that the boat is about to hit, so
that they can brace themselves against the shock of land-
ing. Debarkation begins as soon as the boat is beached
and the ramp lowered, d below. However, extreme pre-
caution must be taken to avoid a premature lowering of
the ramp. There is danger of such a mistake if the boat
slides over a sand bar, giving the impression that the
landing craft has been beached though actually it is
some distance from dry ground.

(2) If it becomes necessary to take to the water near
shore but in water too deep to get a footing, certain
precautions must be observed. The infantry pack is
relatively buoyant but additional ammunition, the rifle,
and the helmet may quickly fatigue even a strong swim-
mer. Before leaving the boat, equipment is checked for
ease of discarding— the cartridge belt is unhooked and
rifle is slung diagonally across the back. Also the helmet
chin strap is securely fastened under the chin, not on the
point of the chin. When entering the water, one must
prevent the helmet from snapping his chin upward. This
is done either by clapping the helmet on the head (fig.
71) or by pulling down on the chin strap (fig. 71) while
entering the water.

d. Debarkation. (1) On dry beach. (a) To escape
the great volume of hostile fire that must be expected,
rapid debarkation from the landing craft to the beach is
essential. Each man disembarks straight over the front
corners of the ramp.

(b) When the landing craft is beached, the coxswain
keeps the engines running ahead and the propellers en-
gaged to keep the boat headed onto the beach and pre-
vent it from turning sideways. This sometimes causes
sudden forward movement of the boat without warning
as, for example, when a minor obstruction gives way
allowing the boat to lurch forward. If a man is caught

136

Figure 71. Methods of keeping the helmet on the head when
entering water.

directly in front of the ramp in the face of such a sudden
lurch, he will be seriously injured. Therefore all men
must disembark over the front corners of the ramp. The
chains which secure the ramp and allow it to be lowered

137

prevent disembarking over the side of the ramp. Men
on the right-hand side of the landing craft disembark
over the right-front corner of the ramp and step off to
the right oblique. Similarly, men on the left-hand side
step off to the left oblique over the left-front corner of
the ramp.

(c) Not all types of landing craft are equipped with
ramps, and sometimes the ramps may become damaged
and jammed. Therefore all men must know how to dis-
embark over the side of a landing craft. In this type
landing the same requirements of speed, precision, and
safety prevail. One or two men at a time go over each
side of the boat near the bow— not over the bow. The
rest of the men remain low in the boat below the gun-
wales, moving forward in the boat as the men in front
go over the side. Men who disembark over the right-
hand side of the boat hold their rifles in the right hand.
They grasp the handrail along the side of the boat with
the left hand, the thumb pointing toward the bow of
the boat. This is extremely important. If a man grasps
the handrail with the thumb pointing toward the stern
of the boat, he will be unable to release the rail and will
get a broken wrist when his body goes over the side.

(d) Men must lower themselves to the water and not
jump from the boat. If they jump they may lose their
footing and fall into the water. Men going over the left-
hand side of the boat hold the rifle with the left hand,
and grasp the handrail with the right hand with the
thumb pointing toward the bow of the boat.

(e) Members of weapons' teams disembark in the same
manner as riflemen and when they have a firm footing
their weapons are handed to them by other members of
their crew still in the boat. After receiving their
weapons they immediately start across the beach. The
remaining members of the weapon crew immediately dis-
embark and follow.

(2) Into water; wading ashore. The condition of the
beach may be such that the landing craft cannot reach
dry land, in which case the boat team will have to wade
ashore. Men must not run until they are on dry land.

138

The insecure footing and the drag of the water against
their legs cause men to stumble and fall if they run. In
such falls men may be injured and equipment damaged.
Men should crouch low to present a small target and
move at a rapid walk until they reach dry ground; then
they should run rapidly across the beach to the first
available cover from which they can engage the enemy.

(3) Into surf near shore. Surf is treacherous because
it may cause men to stumble and fall. Movement
through surf is similar to wading, except that every man
must look behind to observe the size of approaching
breakers. If they are small, a man can brace himself by
standing with his side to the surf and his feet spread for
maximum stability.. The rifle should be held high to
keep it dry. If a large breaker approaches, men must
dive or duck into it rather than let it hit them.

139

SECTION X

SAFETY MEASURES AND EMERGENCY
PROCEDURE IN RIVER CROSSINGS

100. GENERAL, a. River crossings are similar to land-
ing operations except that in river crossings troops take
an active part in operating the boats, distances are
shorter,' and smaller boats are used. Equipment, tactics,
and technique of river crossings are described fully in
FM 5-6, 5-10, and TM 5-271. This chapter deals only
with the problem of taking care of yourself on or in the
water during a river crossing.

b. Nonstandard boats such as civilian rowboats or
canoes are handled much the same as engineer assault
boats but with additional precautions. For example, a
canoe is relatively frail and unstable and care must be
taken to avoid capsizing it or damaging its skin.

101. INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT. Individual equipment
is worn loosely so it may be slipped off easily if necessary.
It is not, however, worn so loosely that it causes noise.
All noise and talking except to whisper instructions is.
prohibited.

102. ROWING ASSAULT BOATS (fig. 72). a. Passen-
gers without paddles crouch low in the boat, holding-
their own and the paddlers' rifles upright against the
bottom. Men with paddles kneel on their outside knees
along the sides of the boat. They hold paddles with the

140

inner hand on the top of the paddle and the outer hand,
back of the hand out, grasping the shaft near the top of
the blade.

b. Paddle as rapidly as possible without striking the
sides of the boat, placing the entire blade in the water.
Never stand up in the boat. Do not fire from the boat.
The engineer in charge kneels in the stern and steers the
boat. Normally the boat is pointed directly at the* far
bank, by compass if necessary; no effort is made to
counteract drift.

Figure 72. Correct position of passenger and paddlers in assault

boat. M2.

103. ABANDONING THE BOAT. a. If necessary the en-
gineer in charge of the boat will give the order to aban-
don it. Each man will discard all unessential equipment
and jump overboard, stepping on the gunwale and
steadying himself ,with the inner hand on the gunwale as
he jumps. Once in the water, swim to the far bank;
men must accomplish their primary mission by reaching
the far bank with their arms and ammunition.

b. Most rivers and streams will have a noticeable cur-
rent. In swimming across such waters, don't swim
against the current as it will exhaust you quickly. Mark

141

some point downstream on the far bank-, diagonally from
the place where you enter the water; swim downstream
toward this mark.

104. STORM BOATS. All personnel except the motor
operator lie on the bottom of the storm boat. (Sec fig.
73.) The engineer operator kneels so he can see to steer.
Personnel must not lie immediately in front of the mo-
tor, which may pivot into the boat when beaching under
power. Upon nearing the far shore, the motor operator
warns the boatload personnel so they may prepare to dis-
embark and may brace themselves if the boat is to be
beached under power. Disembarking from and aban-
doning storm boats is the same as described in para-
graph 103.

142

Figure 73. Correctly loaded storm boat; personnel lie on bottom
facing bow.

143

INDEX

Paragraph Page

Abandoning ship:

Conduct 28 53

General 26 52

Individual safety procedure 27/29 53, 54

Jumping 36, 37 62, 69

• Leaving the ship 32 58

Abandon-ship kit. (See Kit.)
Abandon-ship procedure:

In lifeboats . , 30 ° 54

Launching rafts and floats 31 57

Over the side 35 62

Alligator 93 122

Ammonia inhalant 22n 42

Animals, water 78-93 112

Back stroke, elementary 9 11

Bandage 22n 42

Barracuda 80 114

Belt, life, carbon dioxide:

Description 95 125

Equipment worn with 96 129

Birds for eating 49b (3) 89

Blast concussion injury 64 106

Bleeding, treatment of 66 107

Bluefisli 89 121

Boat: (See also safety measures and emer-
gency procedure.)

Boarding, lifeboats and rubber boats.. 33 - 59

Rubber, carbon dioxide 25 51

Bobbing 5, 99b 3, 135

Boom ladder 18 29

Breast stroke 6b 7

Bullet-hole plugs 22am, 34 47, 60

Burn, treatment for 21, 71 35, 109

Cargo net. (See Net, life.)
Casualty:

Cradle for 17e 27

First aid for 53, 60 92, 103

144

Paragraph

Page

'. 22g, 55a

40, 93

86

119

Cold, exposure to

69

108

22h

40

Compress, first-aid

. . 22n

42

Conservation of strengtli

52

92

75

1 10

Counterintelligence

26c, 94b

52, 123

93

122

13a, 103b

15, 141

73

1 1 A
110

Distress signals. (See Signal.)

6a

5

Drill, abandon-ship

26d

52

Eel, for food

50e

91

88

121

Equipment:

Abandon-slfip kit

21

35

95

125

Boat, rubber, carbon dioxide

25

51

22n

4?

24

5i

Individual, wearing

14b, 27, 96, 101

18, 53.

129, 140

Individual, with life belt

15

18

Inspection aboard ship

26b

52

Jacket, life

15

18

22, 47a

39, 87

17

24

Light, life-preserver

16

20

Raft

23

49

Rope, methods of descending. . .

15

18

Explosion, protection from

27k, 64

53, 106

21, 65

35, 107

76

110

First aid:

21

35

Artificial respiration

62

104

Blast concussion injury

64

106

Bleeding

66

107

Burns (see also Sulfadiazine)...

71

109

75

110

Dehydration

73

110

21, 22n

35, 42

145

Paragraph Page

Eye inflammation . (see also Oil, clean-
ing solution) 65 107

Fainting 76 no

Fractures 68 107

Freezing 69 108

Frostbite 69 108

Heatstroke 72 109

Immediate action 61 103

Immersion foot 70 108

K 't 22n 42

Mental disturbance 77 no

Oil injury (see also Oil, cleansing solu-
tion) 65 107

Pain. (See Morphine.)

Sea snake, bite from 92 121

Shock (see also Heating pad) 63 106

Starvation 74 no

Sunburn 71 109

Sunstroke 72 109

T hi"t ' 73 110

Unconsciousness : 76 110

Wounds (see also Sulfanilamide) 67, 68 107

Fish:

Barracuda 80 114

Bluefish 89 121

Catching 49b (2), 50 89, 90

Eating 49c (2), 50 90

Eels 50e 91

Electric ray 88 - 121

Fresh 50 90

Giant clam . . . : 86 119

Jellyfish 90 12 i

Moray eel '. 83 116

Octopus 87 119

Poisonous 50 90

Portuguese man-of-war 91 121

Saw-fish 82 115

Sea porcupine : 84 117

Sea snake 92 ]2i

Sea urchin 85 117

Shark 79 jj2

Sting ray 81 IH

Fishing kit 22c 40

Flag, signal 22ai 45

Flame, surface, from oil 37 g9

Flotation, emergency 42 76

Floating (see also Treading water) 5 3

146

Paragraph Page

Food:

Birds for eating 49b (3) 89

Eel 50e 91

Fish, eating 49c (2), 50 90

Lifeboat 49 89

Pemmican „. 49c 90

Seaweed 49b 89

Turtle 50d 91

Fracture, bone 68 107

Frostbite 69 108

Heating pad 21 85

Heatstroke 72 109

Iceberg, water from 48b 88

Immersion foot 70 108

Infantry pack, wearing 96b 129

Iodine 22n 42

Jacket, life:

Description 15 18

Jumping with 36b 63

Storing water in 48c 88

Wearing 15b 19

Jacob's ladder 19 29

Jellyfish 49b, 90 89, 121

Jumping:

From landing craft 99c 136

From net 17d 24

From ship ". . . . 36, 37 62, 69

Method 10, 35 11, 62

Oil or flame 37 69

Kit:

Abandon-ship 21 * 35

First-aid 22n 42

Fishing 22c 40

Ladder:

Boom 18 29

Jacob's 19 29

Land, physical indications 56 100

Landing:

In landing craft 99c, d 136

In lifeboats 44f, g 83, 84

In storm boats 104 142

Landing craft (see also Safety measures and

emergency procedure) 81, 85 114, 117

Lashing equipment 47a 87

147

Paragraph Page

Lifeboat:

Abandon-ship procedure in 30 54

Beaching 44f, g 83, 84

Boarding 33a 59

Command 46a, b 86

Equipment 22 39

Food 22ae, 49 44, 89

Handling 43, 44 80, 81

Leaving ship in 32 58

Lowering 30c 55

Navigation 55 93

Righting capsized 32c 59

Sailing 43b 81

Strafing 34 60

Suspension 30b 54

Water in : 48b 88

Life belt. (See Belt, life.)

Life float. (See Equipment: Floats.)

Suspension of 31b 58

Life jacket. (See Jacket, life.)

Life raft. (See Raft, life.)

Suspension of 31a 57

Life preserver. (See Preserver, life.)

Lifesaving 12b 14

Light (see also Signal):

Life preserver 15 18

Living aboard life craft 46-54 86

Mental disturbance 77 110

Moray eel 83 116

Morphine 21 35

Musette bag, wearing of 96c 132

Navigation 55 93

Net, life 17, 97a 24, 132

Octopus 87 119

Oil:

Burning on water 37 59

Cleansing solution 21 35

Injury from 65 107

Jumping into 37 69

Storm 22ai 45

Swimming through 39, 41 70, 73

"On your own" 29 ' 54

Paraboot, wearing of 96c 132

Plug, bullet-hole 22am, 34 47, 60

Poisonous fish 50b 91

Portuguese man-of-war ■ 91 J21

148

Paragraph

Page

Preserver, lite:

Belt 95 125

Emergency 36b, c, d, e, 42 63, 64,

B 1 69, 76

Jacket 15 18

Jumping with 36b 63

Wearing of . . 15, 27a, 36b, 37b (1), 94b, 95, 99a, b 18, 53, 63,

69, 123,
125, 135

Provisions, lifeboat 22ae, 49 44, 89

Raft, life:

Equipment, standard 23b 49

Handling 45 85

Launching 31 57

Strafing 34 60

Rationing:

Food 49c 90

Water 48d 88

Rescue' at sea 59 102

Respiration, artificial 62 104

River crossings. (See Safety' measures and
emergency procedure.)

Rowing lifeboats 43a 80

Safety measures and emergency procedure:

Attracting attention; signaling 58 102

First aid 60-77 103

Individual safety procedure 27 53

In landing craft 94-99 123

In river crossings 100-104 140

Protection against water animal; 78-93 112

Protection against weather 54 92

Saw-fish • ■ • 82 115

Scissors, first-aid 22n 42

Sea anchor 22ah 44

Sea snake 92 121

Sea porcupine 84 117

Sea urchin 85 117

Seaweed 49b 89

Shark 79 112

Shock 21, 63 35, 106

Side stroke 8 11

Signal:

Flag 22aj 45

Lights 22j . 41

Mirror 22ak 45

Pistol 22al 47

Smoke 22i 41

149

Paragraph Pagt

Sleep, aboard lifeboat 51 ,91

Snakes:

Eels and 50e, 83 91, 116

Sea 92 121

Splint-wire, first-aid 22n 42

Stars, navigation by .*. 55c gg

Starvation 74 no

Station, abandon-ship 26a 52

Stimulant, ammonia 22n 42

Sting ray 81 114

Storm:

Oil 22ai 45

Riding out 22ah 44

Strafing:

Landing craft 99b 135

Lifeboat 34 go

Water 34 60

Submerging 5 3

Sulfadiazine 21, 22n 35, 42

Sulfanilamide 21 '35

Sunburn (see also Burns) 54b, 71 93, 109

Sun, navigation by 55d 100

Sunstroke 72 109

Surf 13, 44, 99d(3) 15, 81, 139

Survivor, immediate treatment 61 103

Swimming 4-13 3

Back stroke 9 \\

Basic skills 4 3

Breast stroke 6 5

Currents 13c 17

Definition 4 3

Dog paddle 6 5

Floating 5 3

From ship 38 70

Oil or flame 39, 41 70, 73

Side stroke 8 11

Surf 13a 15

To shore 13 15

Treading water 7 9

Underwater 11, 41 12, 73

Tannic acid 21, 22n 35, 42

Thirst 48a, 73 87, 110

Tourniquet 22n 42

Treading water 7 9

Turtle 50d 91

Undertow 13a 15

150

Paragraph Page

Unconsciousness 76 110

Undressing in water 38b 70

Wading ashore 13b, c, 99d(2) 17, 138

Water:

In lifeboat 22m, 48b 42, 88

Salt, injury . . 48a '87

Sources 48b 88

Whistle 15 18

Wound 21, 67, 68 35, 107

151